Gov Res Conv List
A viewset for viewing and editing Government Restrictions on Conversions.
GET /api/rt/government-restrictions-on-conversions/?ordering=name
{ "count": 324, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/government-restrictions-on-conversions/?ordering=name&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 324, "year_from": 1846, "year_to": 1860, "description": "‘‘‘ \"In 1724, the Yongzheng Emperor (reigned 1722–1735) issued a formal prohibition against the propagation of the Catholic faith in the provinces. All churches were closed and followers were ordered to renounce their faith. Adopting a policy similar to that of his predecessor, the Qianlong Emperor (reigned 1735–1796) continued to ban the missionaries from entering China. In 1746, foreign missionaries were found ministering to Chinese Catholics in Fuan, Fujian province. The emperor went so far as to order all local officials to expel or execute anyone preaching or embracing Catholicism. This was followed by the persecution of the Chinese Catholics, the population of which was steadily increasing during his entire reign. In 1757, the Qianlong Emperor confined all foreign maritime trade to Canton (Guangzhou) and required each and every arriving Western vessel to be supervised by a Chinese mercantile house. Under these circumstances, it became more difficult for foreign missionaries to preach or perform priesthood duties in local communities. Many church activities were forced to cease or be driven underground.\" (Lai and Wu 2019: 4) However, Christian missionaires were allowed to proselytise in 1860: “Further fomenting public anger was the presence of foreign missionaries, who in 1860 had gained the right to proselytize and build churches throughout the empire.” §REF§ (Xiong and Hammond 2019, 313) Xiong, Victor Cunrui and Kenneth J. Hammond. 2019. Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History. London and New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9RC9JSM7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9RC9JSM7 </b></a> §REF§“After the Opium War, the ban on Christianity in China began to change. In 1844, after the First Opium War, the French envoy, Joseph Théodose Marie Melchior de Lagrené, proposed the abolition of the ban on Catholicism. Following negotiations, Emperor Daoguang issued an edict stating, \"In the future, whether domestic or foreign, anyone who studies and adheres to Catholicism in accordance with the rules shall not be punished.\" Foreign missionaries were “only permitted to build churches for worship in the treaty ports and were forbidden from preaching in the interior of the country. ” … On November 6th, Daoguang approved the statement that \"Catholicism is revered in this country and is not regarded as a heretical religion in China. The reason for punishing those who use religion for evil is due to the misuse of religion by Chinese believers, not because of a ban on the Chinese people's veneration of it.\" The court's intention was clear: to regulate the Chinese, but not foreigners' religious beliefs in China. The doors of Christianity remained closed to the Chinese people … In late 1844, copies of the edict were circulated by Qiying to various regions to inform officials to exempt priests and believers from punishment. On March 18, 1846, the edict was publicly announced in Guangzhou, and the lifting of the ban on Christianity became official. Christian missionary work required an audience, and for the general Chinese population, the true meaning of the lifting of the ban began at this time. (鸦片战争后，禁教局面开始改变。道光二十四年（1844年），中法战争之后，法国公使喇萼呢提出废除对天主教的禁令。经谈判，道光皇帝发布谕旨：“嗣后无论中外民人，凡有学习信奉天主教而循规蹈矩者，毫无查禁，皆免惩治”。外国传教士“只准其在通商口岸建堂礼拜，不得擅入内地传教”……11月6日，道光批复“天主教系该国所崇奉，中国并不斥为邪教，实因我国习教之人借教为恶，是以惩治其罪，并非禁该国人崇奉也”。朝廷的意思很清楚，只查中国人信教，不管在华外人的信教，基督的大门仍不准向中国人自由开放……1844年底，耆英曾将弛禁文件抄送各地，通知对教士教民免于治罪，划一办理。1846年3月18日，耆英在广州公布弛禁上谕， 解除教禁的政令至此公开化。传教需有受众，对一般中国人来说，真正意义上的弛禁是从这时开始。)” §REF§Liu, Yuan. (2016). “Negotiations between Gentry and the Qing Dynasty on the Huantang Cases: A Case Study of the Nanyang Huantang Case.” Phase Results of \"Local Gentry in Hubei Education Cases in Late Qing Dynasty (1860-1911)\" Humanities and Social Sciences Project of Hubei Provincial Department of Education. §REF§ “During the Qing Dynasty, although the ban on Christianity had been lifted, the authorities still occasionally repress on those who practiced the religion. In the third year of the Xianfeng reign (1853), the governor of Zhili Province, Naeljing'a, reported that there were 80 Christian households in Jianjiazhuang, Ansui County, and the Xianfeng Emperor ordered a thorough investigation, which resulted in the imprisonment of many people. In the fifth year of the Xianfeng reign (1855), a Catholic named Qiu Yunting from Nanhai County, Guangdong Province, went to Tianjin to \"practice medicine and treat illnesses,\" but he was arrested by the authorities in the ninth year of the Xianfeng reign (1859). In addition, during this period, there were also three cases in Fuzhou in which Christians were targeted and persecuted. (清廷虽已弛禁基督教, 但仍不时打击习教百姓。咸丰三年, 直隶总督讷尔经额奏报安肃县尖家庄习教者达80户, 咸丰帝下令严查, 结果多人被下狱。咸丰五年, 广东南海县天主教民邱云亭潜入天津 “行医治病” , 咸丰九年被官府查获。 此外, 这一时期福州也发生了3起打击教民之事。)” §REF§Zhao, Shuhao. \"A New Exploration of Qing Government's Christian Policies during the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Period.\" Historical Archives 4 (2009): 47-52. §REF§ “In 1856-1860, the Second Opium War erupted, and China was defeated again, signing the unequal treaties of the Treaty of Tianjin and the Treaty of Beijing with the Great Britain and France, respectively. The Treaty of Tianjin in 1858 allowed British, French, and other nationals to travel, trade, and freely preach in the interior of China. The Treaty of Beijing in 1860 stipulated the return of confiscated Catholic Church property and allowed French missionaries to \"rent land and build churches at their discretion\" in various provinces. Thus, the ban on Christianity implemented since the Kangxi reign was eroded under the coercion of Western powers.（1856-1860年又爆发了第二次鸦片战争，中国再次战败，与英法签订了《天津条约》《北京条约》 等不平等条约。1858年的 《天津条约》 规定英、法等国人可往内地游历、通商、自由传教。1860年的《北京条约》中规定退还以前没收的天主堂资产，法国还擅自在中文约本上增加:“并任法国传教士在各省租买田地，建造自便。” 这样一来，康熙年间开始的禁教政策就在西方列强的强迫下瓦解了。）” §REF§ Ding, Li. (2011). The development of Christianity in China since modern times. Theory Horizon, 11(458), 103-106. §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": "2023-12-11T17:02:42.694061Z", "modified_date": "2023-12-11T17:02:42.694073Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Gov_res_conv", "coded_value": "P~A", "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "CnQingL", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912, "long_name": "Late Qing", "new_name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ <br>The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.<br>We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. <i>The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.<br>From 1850 to 1864 CE, China was racked by the fourteen-year Taiping Rebellion. The rebellion directly caused 30 million deaths and destroyed many regions in the middle and lower Yangtze. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 198) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In 1853, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace established a capital in Nanjing, but the rebellion was defeated by armies led by local governors in 1864. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A number of serious uprisings followed the Taiping Rebellion, including the Nian Rebellion (1853-1868 CE). §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>At the same time, the Qing emperors were facing economic problems due to the actions of foreign powers. In the 1830s, British merchants began illegally importing opium to China, where high demand for the drug led to a large trade imbalance. China's economy was drained of silver §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 157) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and the value of copper coins depreciated. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The First Opium War broke out in 1839 CE when a Chinese commissioner attempted to block opium trade in Guangzhou harbour. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The Second Opium War of 1858 CE was a series of military actions by the British and French against the Qing. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The resulting treaties allowed foreign powers to establish concessions in China, abolished taxes for French and British merchants, and forced the Qing to pay large amounts of silver in damages. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The 19th century saw increasingly frequent intrusions by foreign powers. Foreign merchants exploited their tax-free status, to the detriment of local Chinese producers. China was forced to cede much of its territory in Vietnam, Burma and elsewhere. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ By the end of the 19th century, a range of foreign powers including Great Britain, Japan, Germany, and France claimed colonial territories in China. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A peasant uprising known as the Boxer Rebellion targeted foreigners in 1900 CE.<br>In 1860, the Qing rulers were exiled outside the Great Wall when foreign invaders burned down the Summer Palace. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The court was restored by the regent Empress Dowager Cixi and Prince Gong in what is known as the Tongzhi restoration. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ However, the dynasty was finally overthrown in the Revolution of 1911 and the Republic of China was founded.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Late Qing maintained a traditional imperial-style Chinese government headed by an emperor and central bureaucracy. Provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, county magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. <i>The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility</i>. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§ The Qing were deeply opposed to modernization: the scholars Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao had to flee after attempting to reform government practices in 1898 CE. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Rebellions in the 19th century led to the rise of local governors and military commanders, who acted as warlords to control their local regions. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The period between the mid-18th and mid-19th centuries was one of extremely rapid population growth in Late Qing China, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ However, a number of censuses after that date could not be completed due to the rebellions.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:41:02.301719Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 327, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-06-10T10:32:52.403421Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-13T09:39:55.108602Z", "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Gov_res_conv", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 16, "name": "MxAztec", "start_year": 1427, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Aztec Empire", "new_name": "mx_aztec_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Late Postclassic period, when the Aztecs or Mexica rose to power (c. 1427-1526 CE). The Aztec Empire was born from the \"Triple Alliance\" between the city-states (altepetl) of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan, who agreed to collaborate on campaign of territorial expansion and share the resulting tribute and tax payments. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 449-451) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ Within a century, the three cities came to control a significant portion of Northern Mesoamerica, the main exception being the West, which, despite some military successes on the part of the Triple Alliance early on, largely remained under the control of the Tarascans. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 125) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§ <br>As the empire grew, so did the power of Tenochtitlan, which became the de-facto administrative capital, whose ruler came to hold the title huey tlatoani (“high king”). Tenochtitlan's power was strongest over the empire's central provinces, where the Aztecs ruled through governors, judges, tax collectors and other officials that they appointed themselves. For the \"outer\" provinces, the Aztecs limited themselves to targeting major centres, where, again, they appointed their governors and administrative officials. Finally, the Aztecs secured their power over \"frontier\" provinces by guaranteeing military protection from external foes, in exchange for \"gifts\" of soldiers and prestige goods. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 455-457) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ <br>By the time of Spanish conquest in the 1520s, Tenochtitlan likely housed between 150,000 and 250,000 people, §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ perhaps even 3,000. §REF§ (De Rioja 2017: 220) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GC3T83JD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GC3T83JD</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": { "id": 68, "text": "a new_comment_text" }, "private_comment": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 325, "year_from": 1603, "year_to": 1609, "description": "\"The nationwide anti-Christian policy of early modern Japan evolved from a measure that forced Kirishitan (Christian followers or converts) to abandon their religion. It was first practiced in Kyushu in the 1610s and then gradually spread to other areas. In Kyushu, once a person was suspected of being a Christian, on the threat of execution the government required him or her to obtain a document from a Buddhist temple certifying non- Christian identity. Buddhist temples antagonistic to Christianity were readily available in all local villages, and public authorities increasingly opted to utilize them as agents of anti-Christian inspection. As a result, the idea that being non-Christian meant being Buddhist began to take root in Japanese society. For someone suspected of being Christian, a non-Christian certificate issued by a Buddhist temple (or temple certification) was not a matter of choice but a matter of remaining alive.\"§REF§Hur, Nam-lin. 2019. Buddhist Culture in Early Modern Japan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DVW8Z4M2/library§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": "2024-02-27T15:18:12.844485Z", "modified_date": "2024-02-27T15:18:12.844497Z", "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Gov_res_conv", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "JpTokgw", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868, "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "new_name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Tokugawa period, also known as the Edo period, ran from 1603 to 1868 CE. Sometimes the slightly earlier start date of 1600 is chosen in recognition of Tokugawa Ieyasu's decisive victory at the Battle of Sekigahara; however, we have selected the 1603 date, which marks his official appointment as shogun. Although the emperor remained the official head of state, the Tokugawa shoguns ruled Japan. The rise to power of the Tokugawa Shogunate marked an end to the internal strife and warfare that had characterized the preceding century. Tokugawa Ieyasu and his immediate successors set about limiting the power of their rivals and instituting new policies aimed at maintaining stability and centralizing Japan's government. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 54) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ <br>The 'peak' of the Tokugawa period corresponds to the years between 1688 and 1704 CE, known as the Genroku period, which saw the development of a distinct urban culture and the proliferation of art, theatre and fiction. §REF§ (Totman 1993, 280) Conrad Totman. 1993. <i>Early Modern Japan</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ During the early modern period the Japanese polity consisted of three major islands: Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku. §REF§ (Totman 1993, 3-4) Conrad Totman. 1993. <i>Early Modern Japan</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>Eventually, economic difficulties and the threat of Western encroachment helped to bring about the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate. The period came to an end with the resignation of the last Tokugawa shogun in 1867 and the imperial restoration in 1868. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 12) William E. Deal. 2005. <i>Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Tokugawa shogunate built on the work of the generals Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582 CE) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598 CE), who between 1568 and 1590 succeeded in uniting all the daimyō (local military lords) under the command of a military leader into a 'national confederation'. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 1) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan</i>, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Theoretically, the daimyō maintained administrative authority in their own territories, but in practice they were expected to follow the guidance of the shogunate. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Tokugawa Ieyasu and his successors pursued a policy of 'orthodoxy and stability', §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ aimed at consolidating their own power and limiting the ability of their rivals to amass enough power or wealth to enable them to challenge the shogunate. The success of these policies enabled the Tokugawa family to preside over a period of peace and prosperity and rule Japan for the next 268 years. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 6) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan</i>, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ As well as peace, political stability and the centralization of power by the shoguns, the Tokugawa period was characterized by economic prosperity, rising urbanization and the closings of Japan's borders to the wider world in the 1630s. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 1, 6) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan</i>, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Theoretically, class was determined by birth and social mobility was prohibited. Influenced by Chinese models, the social order was formalized and essentially frozen in a hierarchy known as <i>shi-nō-kō-shō</i>, 'warrior-peasant-artisan-merchant'. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Despite the shogunate's concerted attempts to maintain a strict social orthodoxy, however, the stable and economically prosperous conditions led to a range of social changes, including increasing urbanization and the rise of the merchant class, who (although they were theoretically socially inferior) now held much of the country's wealth. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Now that there was no need for the majority of those of samurai rank to be actively engaged in military activities, the warrior class became bureaucratized, a development that went hand-in-hand with a romanticization of the warrior ideal and the codification of proper rules of behaviour. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ <br>During the Tokugawa period, population censuses were carried out. However, they did not take all members of the population into account and various scholars have therefore used supplementary data to produce what they hope are more accurate estimates. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 63) William E. Deal. 2005. <i>Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Estimates for the beginning of the period (1600 CE) range from around 15 §REF§ (Farris 2006, 212) William Wayne Farris. 2006. <i>Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age</i>. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. §REF§ to 22 §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ million. The population rose to around 30 million by the end of the period. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ §REF§ (Totman 1993, 251) Conrad Totman. 1993. <i>Early Modern Japan</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 21, "name": "Kansai", "subregion": "Northeast Asia", "longitude": "135.762200000000", "latitude": "35.025280000000", "capital_city": "Kyoto", "nga_code": "JP", "fao_country": "Japan", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 14, "name": "Northeast Asia", "subregions_list": "Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 326, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "The Mongols' understanding of the boundaries between religion suggests that they would not have placed significant restrictions on conversion. “The Mongols did not see any contradiction between their own religious and cultural integrity and cross-cultural borrowing. As Strathern explains, immanentist societies might draw social distinctions between ‘their cult’ and ‘our cult’, but they also identify equivalences between specific metapersons and gods, thus enabling elasticity and translatability between the local and universal. Instead of setting boundaries between religions, immanentist traditions assume that religions function as a means of intercultural translatability. The Mongols did indeed embrace inter-religious transparency. In their edicts and ultimatums, Eternal Heaven (tenggeri), the supreme sky-deity that granted Chinggis Khan its blessing and the mandate of world-ruling, was translated as Deus, Allah, Khuda or Tian, depending on the audience.”§REF§(Brack 2021, 21) Brack, J. 2021. Disenchanting Heaven: Interfaith Debate, Sacral Kingship, and Conversion to Islam in the Mongol Empire, 1260-1335. Past & Present 250(1): 11-53. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/BRACK/titleCreatorYear/items/MADZH84Q/item-list §REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n“The tolerance, or perhaps indifference, of the Mongols in religious matters, among both themselves and the subject peoples, is well-known.”§REF§(Amitai 2001, 23) Amitai, R. 2001. The Conversion of Tegüder Ilkhan to Islam. Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 25: 15-43. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/amitai/titleCreatorYear/items/SVU7SRNW/item-list §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": "2024-03-26T12:13:07.745379Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-26T12:13:07.745391Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Gov_res_conv", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "IrIlkhn", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339, "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "new_name": "ir_il_khanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Ilkhanate was a state that began under Mongol commander Hulegu who founded the House of Hulegu. §REF§ (Marshall 1993, 229) Robert Marshall. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. §REF§ The nearly eighty years the dynasty lasted was a time of general economic prosperity for the 5 million inhabitants of Persia. The end of the Ilkhanate came when Abu Said, who it is said \"ruled during what was described as the 'best period of the domination of the Mongols\". §REF§ (Marshall 1993, 229) Robert Marshall. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. §REF§ , died without an heir, which resulted in the Jalayirids becoming the strongest faction in the region. §REF§ (Morgan 2015, 78) David Morgan. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. §REF§ <br>The Mongol invaders assimilated to the local culture in Persia. They converted to Islam, used the local languages (Persian and Arabic), and maintained existing Persian administrative practices, the financing of which was underpinned by iqta land grants awarded to senior bureaucrats and army officers. §REF§ (Morgan 2007, 134-148) David Morgan. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ §REF§ (Amitai 2012) Reuven Amitai. 2012. Il-Khanids. Dynastic History. IranicaOnline. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history</a> §REF§ According to the Persian historian Rashid al-Din, who was chief minister to Ghazan §REF§ (Marshall 1993, 228) Robert Marshall. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. §REF§ , the Mongols assessed the vizier (chief of the bureaucracy) on his ability to extract revenue. §REF§ (Morgan 2015, 67) David Morgan. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. §REF§ Even so, previously better known in the region as barbarians bent on destruction, the Mongols rebuilt many hospitals, mosques, and observatories, and impressive mausoleums to the rulers appeared in the cities. §REF§ (Amitai 2012) Reuven Amitai. 2012. Il-Khanids. Dynastic History. IranicaOnline. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Morgan 2007, 134-148) David Morgan. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ <br>During this period, Sultaniya was a famous commercial center and after the intense building activities of Oljetu (r.1304-1316 CE) the 'great city' became the capital. As a result of the work, the circumference of the outer walls almost tripled in length, containing within new fabulous palaces, gardens, and a purpose-built quarter of a thousand houses. §REF§ (Marozzi 2004, 133-135) J Marozzi. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London. §REF§ The largest city in the Ilkhanate at this time was probably Tabriz which also \"developed into a great metropolis\". §REF§ (Morgan 2015, 69) David Morgan. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. §REF§ Tabriz had a cistern for drinking water and baths with hot water. §REF§ (Houtsma et al. 1993, 586) M Th. Houtsma. A J Wensinck. H A R Gibb. W Heffening. E Levi-Provencal. First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936. E.J. Brill. Leiden. §REF§ In 1300 CE Tabriz may have contained 100,000-200,000 inhabitants.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 25, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice. [...] Much of the evidence, then, suggests that all the diverse religious sects were freely tolerated by a prevailing world view that was ready to acknowledge a certain common validity. Yet it is unlikely that such a view could rise to the status of cultural orthodoxy without friction. Although references to religious wars and persecutions are conspicuously absent from the historical record of ancient India, this does not rule out lesser types of conflict, and some scholars believe that there is indeed evidence of localised disagreement and resentment. [...] For example, the Arthaśāstra gratuitously advises the agents of a king to help themselves, on behalf of the ruler, to the property of groups on the fringes of society who might not have powerful friends. Moreover, there are hints in scattered sources that the followers of orthodox Brahman teachers at times ganged up against Buddhist or Jain establishments that had lost their former patronage. [...] Still, hard evidence of religious persecution in these ancient times is scattered and fragmentary. In the absence of more solid evidence, the view has gained ground that pre-modern India had a cultural unity that precluded communal conflict, but we think that this picture is not sufficiently nuanced. Doniger’s perception that there was widespread persecution of non-Brahmans during the first millennium may fairly represent the situation that arose at certain times, but we cannot be at all sure how widespread the phenomenon was, or at what times it was most marked.//\"Still, we should note that, simply as a matter of practical politics, there was at least one factor that would certainly have acted to limit the ferocity of any sectarian persecutions – the absence of a clear and powerful advantage at all times for kings in identifying themselves with the Brahman interest. No clear dividing line existed, in fact, between ruling families that were of ‘genuine’ ‘Aryan’ descent, and the rest; the ruling elite presided over heterogeneous populations within which Brahmanism, as an agent of Sanskritisation and as a common cultural denominator, was slowly feeling its way towards a new role, directed towards shaping an inclusive syncretism. Thus, the Brahmanical revival could not afford to go too far. Especially, it had to be very wary of attacking the prudent preference of kings for policies that had the capacity to attract wide support among the multiple disparate groups that constituted the citizenry. The Brahmans had to make do with whatever qualified honour they could find within the frame of an eclectic culture. Such structural constraints are likely to have kept them from striking at their enemies too wantonly.”§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-11T15:17:37.768318Z", "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 418, "name": "in_gurjara_pratihara_dyn", "start_year": 730, "end_year": 1030, "long_name": "Gurjar-Pratihara Dynasty", "new_name": "in_gurjara_pratihara_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The polity of Gurjar ran from c. 730 to 1030 CE with its territory spanning approximately 1 million square kilometres; roughly corresponding to a slightly smaller area than the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar combined. §REF§ (Keay 2000: 198) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>. §REF§ <br>There has been no information could be found in the sources consulted regarding the polity's overall population, but the imperial capital of Kanauj is thought to have had a population of 80,000 people at its peak in 810 - 950 CE.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR: Changed start year from 810 to 730 CE -- now matches the date range for ruler transitions.", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-11T12:26:04.458158Z", "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 57, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 24, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "\"As little is known of sociopolitical organization of Patrick Phase communities, even less is known of their religion and expressive culture.\"§REF§(Christiansen 2001: 260) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F8GJ2HZF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F8GJ2HZF </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 26, "name": "USMisPa", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 750, "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland III", "new_name": "us_woodland_5", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "2000 BCE<div>Period of population growth begins §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>1 CE<br><div>c1 CE \"large quantities of native cultigens began to be incorporated into midcontinental diets. §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>100 CE<div>Maize appears in the archaeological record §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Atlatl is the contemporary weapon §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"periodic rituals at ceremonial mound centers\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"groups ensured access to needed resources through maintenance of alliance-exchange relationships\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>200 CE<br>300 CE<div>Early arrowheads appear. \"Beginning A.D. 300-400, the bow replaced the atlatl in most regions\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>In the Mississippian region (Midwest and Upland South) the transition from atlatl to bow was \"relatively rapid because dart points disappear from the archaeological record\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Introduction of the bow in the Mississippi region decreased social complexity because it caused the collapse of the Hopewell system, the abandonment of mound centers and alliance-exchange relationships §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Bow enabled a new bow and native crops subsistence strategy which lead to a movement to and the effective exploitation of previously marginal lands and \"household autonomy\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>There followed an economic intensification and population growth which eventually \"packed the landscape with settlements.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>400 CE<br>500 CE<br>600 CE<div>Late arrowheads appear. \"This transition to small, thin, triangular or triangular corner-notched points has long been accepted as evidence of the bow, but variation in the morphology of late arrow point types suggest that this transition was governed by social and historical factors that varied across these regions.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Late arrowheads may indicate the technological development of fletching as they are less heavy and thick than the early arrowheads. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>First evidence of intergroup violence appears in the archaeological record (arrowpoints embedded in skeletons in individual and group burials). §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>No evidence for an increase in social complexity and hierarchy or deviation from the \"trend toward household autonomy\" at this time. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"For the first time, there is evidence, in the form of group and individual burials with embedded arrow points, of the bow as the primary weapon of intergroup violence.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"In Middle Woodland times there isn’t much evidence for warfare.\" \"Later, after about A.D. 600 there is more evidence (scalping, embedded arrow points).\" §REF§ (Peregrine/Pauketat 2014, 16) §REF§ <br>\"Population growth, reduced access to resources, sedentism, and the desire to avoid conflict made the high costs of intensified food production more attractive.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>700 CE<br>800 CE<div>Intensification of Maize farming begins. Higher yields from maize cultivation enables more food to be extracted from a smaller territory. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"Although there is scattered evidence for corn, or maize, during Middle Woodland times, it wasn't until Late Woodland times, after AD 700-800, that it became an important food crop.\" §REF§ (Iseminger 2010, 26) §REF§ <br>Social complexity increases from this period. \"Site plans gained greater internal complexity as houses clustered into court-yard groups and, toward [1000 CE], the southern pattern of civic-ceremonial centers with large earthen mounds was established in many places. Nucleated settlements may have been a defensive response to bow warfare. Burials with embedded arrow points and sites fortified with palisades and ditches are widespread, although no present everywhere... New social roles linked to community defense, organization of labor, and communal storage of maize in secure central places laid the foundation for the increased group differentiation, competition, and hierarchy of the Mississippian period beginning A.D. 1000.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Palisades and ditches appear in the archaeological record. The first evidence of substantial intergroup warfare. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>\"trail networks also are important, and some of the historic east-west ones cross near Cahokia.\" §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 21) §REF§ <br>Cahokia \"controlled a critical choke point in trade routes that spanned the midcontinent\" an idea that goes back to Brackenridge (1813 CE). §REF§ (Milner 2006, 12) §REF§ <br>\"The greatest environmental hazard would have been a late summer Mississippi River flood similar to the one that took place in 1993. A rise in the river at that time of the year simultaneously drowned crops, prevented easy fishing in shallow ponds, and ruined food stored in underground pits. Floods attributable to severe storms, including excessive water funnelled into the floodplain by creeks that drain the uplands, certainly caused localized disasters much like they did a century ago before effective flood-control measures were put in place.\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§ <br>\"No other major site was as advantageously situated. Cahokia was located in what was by far the widest expanse of land suitable for settlement in the American Bottom. More people could live there than anywhere else ... The high ground where Cahokia was located was bordered on the north and south by large tracts of low-lying land that received the waters of different upland streams.\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§ <br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 28, "name": "Cahokia", "subregion": "Mississippi Basin", "longitude": "-90.062035000000", "latitude": "38.658938000000", "capital_city": "St. Louis", "nga_code": "USMO", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 24, "name": "Mississippi Basin", "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 45, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "The following suggests that the government, which was prevalently staffed by Muslims, did not impose significant restrictions on the polity's largely non-Muslim population.\"From this short history it can be seen that the application of Islamic law in the Bornu Empire was minimal. [...] A third reason why Muslim scholars might not have opted for full application of Islamic law was the fear of losing their political positions, which they won only because of their literacy. Therefore they compromised with non-Muslims and developed the attitude of tolerance, which the situation forced on them. Whether they were satisfied with that situation cannot be easily determined. Nevertheless, the warm reception offered by the indigenous people to the Muslim traders on their first arrival in Nigeria prevented the Muslims from developing a militant attitude against their hosts. The Muslims saw the natives as friends and co-religionists, even though they worshipped different gods.\" §REF§(Sodiq 2017: 29-30) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6F2IFDUB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6F2IFDUB </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 670, "name": "ni_bornu_emp", "start_year": 1380, "end_year": 1893, "long_name": "Kanem-Borno", "new_name": "ni_bornu_emp", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 34, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice. [...] Much of the evidence, then, suggests that all the diverse religious sects were freely tolerated by a prevailing world view that was ready to acknowledge a certain common validity. Yet it is unlikely that such a view could rise to the status of cultural orthodoxy without friction. Although references to religious wars and persecutions are conspicuously absent from the historical record of ancient India, this does not rule out lesser types of conflict, and some scholars believe that there is indeed evidence of localised disagreement and resentment. [...] For example, the Arthaśāstra gratuitously advises the agents of a king to help themselves, on behalf of the ruler, to the property of groups on the fringes of society who might not have powerful friends. Moreover, there are hints in scattered sources that the followers of orthodox Brahman teachers at times ganged up against Buddhist or Jain establishments that had lost their former patronage. [...] Still, hard evidence of religious persecution in these ancient times is scattered and fragmentary. In the absence of more solid evidence, the view has gained ground that pre-modern India had a cultural unity that precluded communal conflict, but we think that this picture is not sufficiently nuanced. Doniger’s perception that there was widespread persecution of non-Brahmans during the first millennium may fairly represent the situation that arose at certain times, but we cannot be at all sure how widespread the phenomenon was, or at what times it was most marked.//\"Still, we should note that, simply as a matter of practical politics, there was at least one factor that would certainly have acted to limit the ferocity of any sectarian persecutions – the absence of a clear and powerful advantage at all times for kings in identifying themselves with the Brahman interest. No clear dividing line existed, in fact, between ruling families that were of ‘genuine’ ‘Aryan’ descent, and the rest; the ruling elite presided over heterogeneous populations within which Brahmanism, as an agent of Sanskritisation and as a common cultural denominator, was slowly feeling its way towards a new role, directed towards shaping an inclusive syncretism. Thus, the Brahmanical revival could not afford to go too far. Especially, it had to be very wary of attacking the prudent preference of kings for policies that had the capacity to attract wide support among the multiple disparate groups that constituted the citizenry. The Brahmans had to make do with whatever qualified honour they could find within the frame of an eclectic culture. Such structural constraints are likely to have kept them from striking at their enemies too wantonly.”§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 390, "name": "InMagad", "start_year": 450, "end_year": 605, "long_name": "Magadha", "new_name": "in_magadha_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-19T10:29:31.079157Z", "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 66, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 283, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“It is extremely difficult to ascertain the precise nature of Mexica society prior to their sudden rise to imperial power in 1428, despite numerous descriptions in the chronicles and codices. In some instances, later chronicles unconvincingly projected back in time the political and social structure of the imperial age. In other cases, codices and histories portray the early Mexica with an almost Rousseauian nostalgia, describing them as a rustic group with a totally egalitarian social and political structure. Again, the inconsistencies may be partly the result of the Mexica imperial elite’s later rewriting of history. Yet much of the contradictory nature of the evidence on the early Mexica is due to the dynamic nature of their development; Mexica political and social institutions were probably undergoing continuous change in response to their varying fortunes and their rapid cultural evolution. Specific characterizations would only apply to a particular moment in time. However, given the near-absence of relevant archaeological data, the chronology of Mexica evolution can only be assumed on a very general level. The situation is exacerbated by accounts which confuse the features of earlier and later institutions and by fifteenth- century state propagandists’ attempts to create historical precedents or allegorical justifications for the new imperial order.” §REF§ (Conrad 1984, 23) Conrad, Geoffrey. 1984. Religion and empire: the dynamics of Aztec and Inca expansionism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BGTJ339C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BGTJ339C </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-13T10:00:46.454127Z", "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 15, "name": "MxPostM", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1426, "long_name": "Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico", "new_name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_10", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Middle Postclassic (c. 1200-1426 CE). By this time, Tula no longer held sway over the region, and had been replaced by several city-states (altepetl). Documents written much later record the dynastic histories and conflicts between these city-states; toward the very end of this period, they came to form growing confederations, paving the way for the Aztec empire. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 123-124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§ Major centres such as Azcapotzalco, Texcoco, or Cholula likely had between 20,000 and 30,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ Each altepetl was ruled by a king (tlatoani) and a council of nobles. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 449) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": { "id": 87, "text": "a new_comment_text" }, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 32, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "\"We do not have any indication about the religious beliefs of the Chalcolithic inhabitants of the Middle Ganga Plain.\"§REF§(Singh 2004: 149) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D6NWCU5A\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: D6NWCU5A </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 415, "name": "InGangC", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -601, "long_name": "Chalcolithic Middle Ganga", "new_name": "in_ganga_ca", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Middle Ganga corresponds to the eastern portion of the Upper Ganga Plain, in the eastern part of the north-central modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and the state of Bihar. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Chalcolithic (c. 3000-6001 BCE). Overall, there is not much to suggest that the transition from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic significantly changed the prevalent lifestyle, apart from the addition of copper technology and new forms of pottery. Larger sites found in the wider Gangetic region dating from this time have yielded evidence for agricultural activities, including animal husbandry; moreover, one site (Chirand) has also yielded evidence for large-scale production of tools made of bone and antler, as well as of items of likely domestic use, indicating some degree of craft specialisation. The political organisation of such sites remain overall unclear, though one site in a neighbouring valley, Magahara, seems to have housed a relatively egalitarian community, judging from the similarity between houses and their arrangement around a likely cattle pen, suggesting communal ownership of livestock. No population estimates could be found for the Middle Ganga specifically, but the typical community in the nearby Vindhya region would likely have numbered around 200 people, and the region as a whole likely had a population of about 1,000. §REF§ (Vikrama and Chattopadhyaya 2002: 127-132) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U4F7KRKD/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U4F7KRKD/</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }