Gov Res Conv List
A viewset for viewing and editing Government Restrictions on Conversions.
GET /api/rt/government-restrictions-on-conversions/?ordering=-description
{ "count": 324, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/government-restrictions-on-conversions/?ordering=-description&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 172, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "CnYngsh", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000, "long_name": "Yangshao", "new_name": "cn_yangshao", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Yangshao culture (Miaodigou, Xiyincun) first developed in the Loess plateau in the Holocene period. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 335) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ The culture was present from 5000 to 3000 BCE, extending from the Middle Yellow River Valley to modern Qinghai and Gansu. §REF§ (Tanner 2009, 20) Tanner, Harold Miles. 2009. <i>China: A History</i>. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/46QCS68G\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/46QCS68G</a> §REF§ Yangshao sites are mainly found in the Guanzhong region in Shaanxi, eastern Gansu, western Shanxi, southern Hebei and Henan. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 333) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In <i>East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3)</i>, edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ Yangshao subsisted on wild foods and domesticated millet. Men most likely hunted, and men and women farmed and produced goods. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 336) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In <i>East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3</i>), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ <br>Yangshao villages were often surrounded by a ditch, and contained groups of semi-subterranean round or square houses constructed using the wattle and daub method, a graveyard and a public courtyard. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 334) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In <i>East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3)</i>, edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ Homes contained hearths for cooking and wide benches. §REF§ (Von Falkenhausen 1994, 55) Von Falkenhausen. Lothar. 1994. “Rediscovering the Past.” In <i>China: Ancient Culture, Modern Land</i>, edited by Robert E. Murowchick. Norman Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3</a> §REF§ Yangshao culture is characterized by the presence of painted black and red pottery featuring animals and geometric designs. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 333) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In <i>East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3)</i>, edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ Pottery, jewelry and stone, bone and ceramic tools have been excavated from Yangshao period graves. §REF§ (Von Falkenhausen 1994, 55) Von Falkenhausen. Lothar. 1994. “Rediscovering the Past.” In <i>China: Ancient Culture, Modern Land</i>, edited by Robert E. Murowchick. Norman Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3</a> §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the early Yangshao phase, settlements did not have any detectable hierarchies. In the later phase, structures in the settlements began to vary in size, suggesting the existence of settlement hierarchies. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 334) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In <i>East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3)</i>, edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ In many villages, a large structure is surrounded by smaller dwellings. §REF§ (Von Falkenhausen 1994, 55) Von Falkenhausen. Lothar. 1994. “Rediscovering the Past.” In <i>China: Ancient Culture, Modern Land</i>, edited by Robert E. Murowchick. Norman Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3</a> §REF§ However, grave goods in Yangshao burials suggest a more egalitarian society. §REF§ (Von Falkenhausen 1994, 55) Von Falkenhausen. Lothar. 1994. “Rediscovering the Past.” In <i>China: Ancient Culture, Modern Land</i>, edited by Robert E. Murowchick. Norman Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3</a> §REF§ More information is needed on settlement hierarchy and community organization in the Yangshao period. The population of Yangshao settlements varied- smaller settlements had 70 to 80 members while larger settlements housed a few hundred. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 335) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:28:14.795493Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 1, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 86, "name": "InDecIA", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300, "long_name": "Deccan - Iron Age", "new_name": "in_deccan_ia", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The South Indian Iron Age lasted, roughly, from 1200 to 300 BCE. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 59) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. <i>Journal of Social Archaeology</i> 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ The vast majority of Iron Age megalithic structures and associated sites have been found in the modern-day Indian states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. §REF§ (Brubaker 2001-2002, 253) Robert Brubaker. 2001-2002. 'Aspects of Mortuary Variability in the South Indian Iron Age'. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute</i> 60-61: 253-302. §REF§ As in the preceding Neolithic period, South Indians sustained themselves through bovine and caprine pastoralism as well as the cultivation of millet and pulses - and, increasingly, wheat, barley, and rice. Settlement designs became more complex and labour-intensive, and new social arrangements and mortuary practices emerged. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 65) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. <i>Journal of Social Archaeology</i> 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Differences in the scale, design and materials of mortuary megalithic structures and associated grave goods point to the growing hierarchization of South Indian societies at this time. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 65) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. <i>Journal of Social Archaeology</i> 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ However, there was some variation in terms of the sociopolitical organization of individual communities: for example, it is likely that some chiefs with limited decision-making powers ruled over single settlements, and that more powerful leaders based in large centres exerted some control over surrounding settlements, and that some polities were made up of several settlements ruled by a hierarchy of leaders who answered to a single paramount chief. The first type of polity probably prevailed at the beginning of the Iron Age, while the second and third type likely became more common towards its end. §REF§ (Brubaker 2001-2002, 287-91) Robert Brubaker. 2001-2002. 'Aspects of Mortuary Variability in the South Indian Iron Age'. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute</i> 60-61: 253-302. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 9, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 85, "name": "InDecNL", "start_year": -2700, "end_year": -1200, "long_name": "Deccan - Neolithic", "new_name": "in_deccan_nl", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The South Indian Neolithic lasted from about 3000 to 1200 BCE. Here we are particularly interested in the northern part of the modern-day Indian state of Karnataka, where Neolithic communities appear to have been small, egalitarian, and reliant on pastoralism (mostly cattle), agriculture (mostly millet and pulses), and hunting and gathering. The prevalence of cattle motifs in rock art, as well as the number of ashmounds (large mounds of burned cattle dung) dotting the landscape, point to the symbolic importance of cattle in South Indian Neolithic ideology as a whole. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 62-65) Johansen, Peter. 2014. “The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India.” Journal of Social Archaeology 14 (1): 59-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The presence of only minor variations in house size, design and content, as well as in mortuary practices, suggests an egalitarian society during this period. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 63) Johansen, Peter. 2014. “The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India.” Journal of Social Archaeology 14 (1): 59-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR</a>. §REF§ No population estimates are provided by the literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 17, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“There is no evidence of a hierarchical social system and centralized control (p.219). Jenne-Jeno was a large, complex, but non-coercive urban settlement (p.225). The demands of specialization pushed groups apart while the requirements of a generalized economy pulled them together ... created a dynamism that ensured growth and the establishment of urban settlements. And they were non-coercive settlements. Groups congregated by choice. This is an instance of transformation from a rural to an urban society that did not establish a hierarchical society and coercive centralized control... The process in the delta and at Jenne-Jeno, in particular, was one of 'complexification' rather than centralization (p.228)”. §REF§ (Reader,1998: 219-228). Reader J. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. London. Penguin Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DAFE2ZRN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DAFE2ZRN </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "MlJeJe3", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899, "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "new_name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The archaeological site of Jenne-jeno (or Djenné-djenno) is a mound located in the Niger Inland Delta, a region of West Africa just south of the Sahara and part of modern-day Mali, characterized by lakes and floodplains. It was continuously inhabited between 250 BCE and 1400 CE. 'Jenne-jeno III' refers to the period from 400 to 900 CE. This roughly corresponds to the region's 'urban prosperity' phase. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 175-76) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Though subsistence strategies remained largely unchanged, a number of important transformations occurred: the inhabitants of Jenne-jeno grew in number, established long-distance trade networks, and developed more sophisticated metalworking techniques. §REF§ (McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 1) Roderick J. McIntosh and Susan K. McIntosh. 1981. 'The Inland Niger Delta before the Empire of Mali: Evidence from Jenne-jeno'. <i>Journal of African History</i> 22 (1): 1-22. §REF§ §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 175-76) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Between 400 and 800 CE, Jenne-jeno grew from 25 to 33 hectares. Population density was likely high, and a conservative estimate puts the population of Jenne-jeno and its satellites within a one-kilometre radius at 10,000-26,000 people around 800 CE. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The political organization of Jenne-jeno may have been quite different from that of other ancient cities. In several decades of excavation, clear evidence for hierarchies of any kind has yet to be unearthed: it seems that Jenne-jeno had no palaces, rich tombs, temples, public buildings, or monumental architecture. Indeed, the city's very layout ‒ an assemblage of dispersed clusters ‒ suggests a resistance to centralization. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 189) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It is possible that, at this time, Niger Inland Delta society was organized 'heterarchically' rather than hierarchically: that is, it was divided into multiple components, each deriving authority from separate or overlapping sources, with mechanisms in place to prevent any one group from monopolizing power. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 228-29) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 16, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“There is no evidence of a hierarchical social system and centralized control (p.219). Jenne-Jeno was a large, complex, but non-coercive urban settlement (p.225). The demands of specialization pushed groups apart while the requirements of a generalized economy pulled them together ... created a dynamism that ensured growth and the establishment of urban settlements. And they were non-coercive settlements. Groups congregated by choice. This is an instance of transformation from a rural to an urban society that did not establish a hierarchical society and coercive centralized control... The process in the delta and at Jenne-Jeno, in particular, was one of 'complexification' rather than centralization (p.228)”. §REF§ (Reader,1998: 219-228). Reader J. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. London. Penguin Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DAFE2ZRN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DAFE2ZRN </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "MlJeJe2", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399, "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "new_name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The archaeological site of Jenne-jeno (or Djenné-djenno) is a mound located in the Niger Inland Delta, a region of West Africa just south of the Sahara and part of modern-day Mali, characterized by lakes and floodplains. It was continuously inhabited between 250 BCE and 1400 CE. 'Jenne-jeno II' refers to the period from 50 to 400 CE. During this time, the site's inhabitants fished, gathered wild plants, hunted, and cultivated rice (as well as millet and sorghum). They also made and used pottery, and smelted, smithed and used iron, though they probably imported the raw material for the latter from far afield. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It appears that the heterarchical organization that characterized Jenne-jeno in later times developed during this period. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, xv) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ As for population, it is unclear how many people were living at Jenne-jeno or at the surrounding sites at this time, but a relatively rapid demographic increase is also likely. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 15, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“There is no evidence of a hierarchical social system and centralized control (p.219). Jenne-Jeno was a large, complex, but non-coercive urban settlement (p.225). The demands of specialization pushed groups apart while the requirements of a generalized economy pulled them together ... created a dynamism that ensured growth and the establishment of urban settlements. And they were non-coercive settlements. Groups congregated by choice. This is an instance of transformation from a rural to an urban society that did not establish a hierarchical society and coercive centralized control... The process in the delta and at Jenne-Jeno, in particular, was one of 'complexification' rather than centralization (p.228)”. §REF§ (Reader,1998: 219-228). Reader J. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. London. Penguin Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DAFE2ZRN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DAFE2ZRN </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "MlJeJe1", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49, "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "new_name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The archaeological site of Jenne-jeno (or Djenné-djenno) is a mound located in the Niger Inland Delta, a region of West Africa just south of the Sahara and part of modern-day Mali, characterized by lakes and floodplains. It was continuously inhabited between 250 BCE and 1400 CE. 'Jenne-jeno I' refers to the period of earliest occupation, from 250 BCE to 50 CE. During this time, the site's inhabitants fished, gathered wild plants, hunted, and cultivated rice (as well as millet and sorghum). They also made and used pottery, and smelted, smithed and used iron, though they probably imported the raw material for the latter from far afield. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>There does not seem to be enough data to reconstruct Jenne-jeno's political or social organization at this time, but even for later periods, there is a lack of archaeological evidence for 'coercive' centralized control or the development of hierarchical social structures. §REF§ (Reader 1998, 225, 228) John Reader. 1998. <i>Africa: A Biography of the Continent</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ It is also unclear how many people were living at Jenne-jeno or at the surrounding sites. However, one of the site's excavators, Roderick McIntosh, does say that the founding population was probably not inconsiderable, and expanded rapidly. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 18, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“There is no evidence of a hierarchical social system and centralized control (p.219). Jenne-Jeno was a large, complex, but non-coercive urban settlement (p.225). The demands of specialization pushed groups apart while the requirements of a generalized economy pulled them together ... created a dynamism that ensured growth and the establishment of urban settlements. And they were non-coercive settlements. Groups congregated by choice. This is an instance of transformation from a rural to an urban society that did not establish a hierarchical society and coercive centralized control... The process in the delta and at Jenne-Jeno, in particular, was one of 'complexification' rather than centralization (p.228)”. §REF§ (Reader,1998: 219-228). Reader J. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. London. Penguin Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DAFE2ZRN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DAFE2ZRN </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "MlJeJe4", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300, "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "new_name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The archaeological site of Jenne-jeno (or Djenné-djenno) is a mound located in the Niger Inland Delta, a region of West Africa just south of the Sahara and part of modern-day Mali, characterized by lakes and floodplains. It was continuously inhabited between 250 BCE and 1300 CE. 'Jenne-jeno IV' refers to the period from 900 to 1300 CE. This roughly corresponds to the tail end of the region's 'urban prosperity' phase, and the beginning of the 'urban shake-up'. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 175-76) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ By this period, the inhabitants of Jenne-jeno had established long-distance trade networks and developed bronzeworking. Around 1000, they started working with brass, and the population continued to grow, reaching its peak between 1100 and 1200. They also produced an impressive corpus of terracotta figurines. However, in the 13th century, the population decreased rapidly, eventually leading to the abandonment of several sites, Jenne-jeno included, by 1400. The reasons for the decline are unclear, but they may include climate change, pandemic diseases such as plague, cultural upheaval deriving from the arrival of Islam and horses, and the emergence of the great West African empires of Ghana, Mali and Songhai. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 176-177) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>No population estimates could be found specifically for this period. However, the combined population of Jenne-jeno and its satellites within a one-kilometre radius had probably reached 10,000-26,000 people by 800 CE. The population continued to grow until 1200, and then rapidly declined in the 13th and 14th centuries. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-77) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The political organization of Jenne-jeno may have been quite different from that of other ancient cities. In several decades of excavation, clear evidence for hierarchies of any kind has yet to be unearthed: it seems that Jenne-jeno had no palaces, rich tombs, temples, public buildings, or monumental architecture. Indeed, the city's very layout ‒ an assemblage of dispersed clusters ‒ suggests a resistance to centralization. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 189) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It is possible that, at this time, Niger Inland Delta society was organized 'heterarchically' rather than hierarchically: that is, it was divided into multiple components, each deriving authority from separate or overlapping sources, with mechanisms in place to prevent any one group from monopolizing power. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 228-29) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-08T14:01:23.818586Z", "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 90, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“The time of the so-called “1st (Ogiso) Dynasty” probably the early 10th first half of 12th centuries, is one of the most mysterious pages of the Benin history. The sources on this period are not abundant. Furthermore, it is obvious that archaeological and ethnohistorical evidence, rather scarce, should be supplemented by an analysis of different records of the oral historical tradition while it is well known that this kind of source is not very much reliable. However, on the other hand, it is generally recognized that it is unreasonable to discredit it completely. Though Benin students have confirmed this conclusion and demonstrated some possibilities of verifying and correcting its evidence, a reconstruction of the early Benin history will inevitably contain many hypothetical suggestions and not so many firm conclusions.” §REF§ (Bondarenko and Roese 2001: 185-186) Bondarenko, Dmitri M. and Peter M. Roese, 2001. “Ancient Benin: Where did the First Monarchs Come from?”, Asian and African Studies, 10 (1), pp.185-198. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P4DQ36NB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: P4DQ36NB </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 660, "name": "ni_igodomingodo", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1450, "long_name": "Igodomingodo", "new_name": "ni_igodomingodo", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 144, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“The rulers of neighbouring states at this period revived from time to time the restrictions on non-Muslims which strict Muslims regarded as linked to the commands of Islam, particularly regarding sumptuary distinctions and the construction of new churches. The first of these measures almost always fell in abeyance, while dispensations in regard to the second could be obtained by financial means. It does not seem that before the conversion of the Mongols to Islam at the start of the fourteenth century, any measures of this kind was contemplated in Rum, where its application would have been pointless or impossible according to time and place.” §REF§ (Cahen 2014, 125) Cahen, Claude. 2014. The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rum: Eleventh to Fourteenth Century. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BNJ9UCT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BNJ9UCT </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 171, "name": "TrRum**", "start_year": 1077, "end_year": 1307, "long_name": "Rum Sultanate", "new_name": "tr_rum_sultanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum (1077-1307 CE) was probably founded by Suleman Qotlomos after a Turkmen tribe in Syria asked him to lead them. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§ The early years of the Sultanate are, however, extremely murky as it is unlikely that any local Muslim chronicles were written. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§ <br>It is likely that the government was a largely military arrangement. The regional apparatus was organised with military officials overseeing local tax collectors. The amirs were granted land by the Sultan in return for military service §REF§ (Fodor 2009, 197) Pal Fodor. “Ottoman Warfare, 1300-1453.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, edited by Kate Fleet, Suraiya Faroqhi, and Reşat Kasaba, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>At his royal court a core of senior bureaucrats and scribes assisted with the central administration. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§ Land, and the right to collect revenue for it, was also distributed by the Sultan to senior officials. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§ These positions and the land grants often became hereditary. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§ <br>The early 13th century was probably the high point of the Sultanate of Rum §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§ before Anatolia came under the authority of invading Mongols in the 1240s CE. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§ Konya was the largest city of the polity with 30,000-40,000 inhabitants. Crusaders who reached there in 1190 reckoned it was “the size of Cologne\". §REF§ (Cahen 2001, 121) Claude Cahen. 2001. The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rūm: Eleventh to Fourteenth Century. Translated by P. M. Holt. A History of the Near East. Harlow, England: Longman. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 247, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“The imperial age of the Guptas was marked by a rational and sensible cosmopolitanism in which no rancour or jealousy was present.” §REF§ (Dikshitar 1993, 281) Dikshitar, V.K. Ramachandra. 1993. The Gupta Polity. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCGBPGRT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GCGBPGRT </b></a> §REF§ “The king therefore respected the conventions of a certain group or guild, pursued their rules and regulations and ultimately pronounced judgement. Even with regard to every territorial division, whether it be a village or a district or even a town, the king would not ignore the rules peculiar to it and always showed a tendency to abide by them rather than press his own point to view.” §REF§ (Dikshitar 1993, 284) Dikshitar, V.K. Ramachandra. 1993. The Gupta Polity. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCGBPGRT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GCGBPGRT </b></a> §REF§ “Hindu Gods and Goddesses began to be enshrined in temples and worshipped. That was the one sure way of indicating one’s piety or predilection to certain Gods or Goddesses. It is therefore not surprising that the Gupta monarchs erected huge edifices for different gods accepted in popular religious traditions.” §REF§ (Dikshitar 1993, 298) Dikshitar, V.K. Ramachandra. 1993. The Gupta Polity. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCGBPGRT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GCGBPGRT </b></a> §REF§ “Mention has already been made of the iconographic wealth in the Gupta period and the spirit of religious tolerance that then prevailed.” §REF§ (Dikshitar 1993, 305) Dikshitar, V.K. Ramachandra. 1993. The Gupta Polity. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GCGBPGRT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GCGBPGRT </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 388, "name": "InGupta", "start_year": 320, "end_year": 550, "long_name": "Gupta Empire", "new_name": "in_gupta_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Gupta polity ran from 320-514 CE, with its peak considered to be around 400 CE during the reign of Skanda-Gupta. §REF§ (Keay 2010, 146) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>. §REF§ <br>At its largest, the Gupta empire spanned up to 900,000 square kilometres across north and south India, which it had full and direct control over, as well as southern India indirectly. The cities of Ujjain and Pataliputra seem to have both served as capital cities. While the total population is not known, the largest settlement, Pataliputra, is thought to have had a population of 150,000 people in 360 CE. §REF§ (Agrawal 1989) §REF§ , Kulke and Rothermund (2004) §REF§ (Kulke and Rothermund 2004) §REF§ and Stein (2010) §REF§ (Stein 2010) §REF§ .<br><br/>Trade flourished under the Gupta Empire both internally across India as well as through overseas trading routes with China and the Roman Empire. Among their exports were pearls, gems, diamonds and precious metals. §REF§ (Keay 2010, 146) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>. §REF§ <br>Common religions practiced in this polity included Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism from both the Vaisnava and Saiva Traditions, though none claimed to be the exclusive or ‘correct’ religion. §REF§ (Bisschop 2010, 478) Bisschop, Peter. 2010. “Saivism in the Gupta-Vakataka Age.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 20 (4):477-88.Seshat URL: .<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/M52PA8IW/itemKey/BHH5W2PV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/M52PA8IW/itemKey/BHH5W2PV</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-17T11:10:49.230416Z", "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 65, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }