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A viewset for viewing and editing Government Restrictions on Conversions.
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{ "count": 324, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/government-restrictions-on-conversions/?ordering=-tag&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 179, "year_from": 1665, "year_to": 1692, "description": "‘‘‘ \"In 1724, the Yongzheng Emperor (reigned 1722–1735) issued a formal prohibition against the propagation of the Catholic faith in the provinces. All churches were closed and followers were ordered to renounce their faith. Adopting a policy similar to that of his predecessor, the Qianlong Emperor (reigned 1735–1796) continued to ban the missionaries from entering China. In 1746, foreign missionaries were found ministering to Chinese Catholics in Fuan, Fujian province. The emperor went so far as to order all local officials to expel or execute anyone preaching or embracing Catholicism. This was followed by the persecution of the Chinese Catholics, the population of which was steadily increasing during his entire reign. In 1757, the Qianlong Emperor confined all foreign maritime trade to Canton (Guangzhou) and required each and every arriving Western vessel to be supervised by a Chinese mercantile house. Under these circumstances, it became more difficult for foreign missionaries to preach or perform priesthood duties in local communities. Many church activities were forced to cease or be driven underground.\"§REF§(Lai and Wu 2019: 4) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GS9IA95J\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GS9IA95J </b></a>§REF§ Note, too, that Christian missionaries were once again allowed to proselytise in 1860: “Further fomenting public anger was the presence of foreign missionaries, who in 1860 had gained the right to proselytize and build churches throughout the empire.” §REF§ (Xiong and Hammond 2019, 313) Xiong, Victor Cunrui and Kenneth J. Hammond. 2019. Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History. London and New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9RC9JSM7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9RC9JSM7 </b></a> §REF§ “On the 16th of August, 1669, The Kangxi Emperor decreed: “As for the Catholic Church, except for Ferdinand Verbiest, etc., can live as usual, I am afraid that the provinces in Zhili may re-establish churches working on conversion, therefore it should be strictly prohibited.\"(1669.8.16 康熙帝下旨：“其天主教，除南怀仁等照常自行外，恐直隶各省或复立堂入教，仍着严行晓谕禁止。”) In short, if we take a closer look at these historical backgrounds before the Edict of Toleration in Kangxi Reign, 31st Year (1692), it clearly shows that after a brief period of tolerance during the Shunzhi Reign, the Qing dynasty basically maintained a prohibitive attitude towards Catholicism in the early Kangxi Reign. During this period, missionaries such as Lodovico Buglio and Ferdinand Verbiest were allowed to \"practise their own religion\" in Beijing, missionaries detained in Guangzhou were allowed to return to their own churches in the ninth year of the Kangxi Reign, and Catholicism was explicitly removed from the ranks of the cults in the twenty-sixth year of the Kangxi Reign (1687). It is also worth noting that, according to the information revealed by the history of the Western Church, the Kangxi Emperor also showed many signs of easing the ban after his pro-regime, especially in the ninth year of the Kangxi, when he allowed the missionaries detained in Guangzhou to return to their own churches. In the twenty-sixth year of the Kangxi Reign, five French Jesuits, including Jean de Fontaney, landed in Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, and officials advised to expel them, but the Kangxi emperor decreed: “Among Jean de Fontaney and five others, there might be someone who understands the astronomical calendar, so they should be sent to the capital city to be recruited. Those who are not called to the office may reside as they wish.\" These two decrees gave the missionaries in China a lot of freedom of movement and allowed them to preach privately at the local level, thus greatly loosening the ban on preaching from the 8th year of Kangxi Reign (1669). However, due to the influence of the anti-Catholic forces in the Qing court, the provision of \"no one from the Zhili provinces is allowed to join the Church\" was not only not changed, but also reinforced several times. In this way, Catholicism was still prohibited in China. Local officials at all levels could still use this prohibition as a basis for large-scale anti-Catholic incidents in Zhejiang Province. (总之，细究康熙三十一年容教诏令颁布之前的这些历史背景，可以清楚地看出，在经过顺治朝的一段短暂宽容时期后，康熙前期，清廷在对待天主教的总方针上基本秉持禁止态度。在此期间，利类思、南怀仁等传教士可以在北京“自行其教”，康熙九年羁留广州的传教士被准予各归本堂，康熙二十六年更明确将天主教从邪教行列中剔除。而且值得注意的是，从西方教会史料透露出的信息来看，康熙帝在亲政后也多次表露出要宽免教禁的迹象，特别是康熙九年允许羁留广州的传教士各归本堂。康熙二十六年法国耶稣会士洪若翰一行五人在浙江宁波登陆，有朝议加以驱逐，但康熙帝下旨：“洪若[翰]等五人，内有通历法者，亦未可定，着起送来京候用。其不用者，听其随便居住。”这两次谕旨，给了在华传教士很大的自由活动空间，使得他们可以在地方上私行传教，由此极大地松动了康熙八年禁教令。但是，受清廷内反天主教势力的影响，康熙八年禁教谕旨中“其直隶各省一应人等不许入教”的规定不仅一直没有得到更改，相反还多次获得确认。如此一来，天主教在中国仍然处于被禁止状态。各级地方官员仍可利用上述禁令为依据在浙省掀起大规模反教事件的。) During the Kangxi period, due to the influence of Jean de Fontaney, in the oracle of March 17 and 19, 1692, and in the imperial instructions of the Ministry of Rites on the 20th and the imperial approval of Kangxi on the 22nd, it was reiterated that Catholicism was not a cult, and that \"the Westerners living in the provinces had not committed any crime, nor had they confused the masses with their sideways, or created quarrel as heretics. Since the Westerners did not commit any crime, it was not right to prohibit them from travelling. Therefore, all the Catholic churches in different places should be allowed to remain as they were, and the believers should be allowed to travel; there is no need to prohibit them. On the day when the order is received, they may pass through the province.\" This series of documents constituted a complete decree of tolerance, and was the only official document of the Western missionaries for the \"righteous mission\". The so-called \"edict\" was also a special legal charter. For example, in 1693, when Kangxi was suffering from malaria, the missionary Zhang Cheng offered a golden chicken to cure him quickly, and Kangxi gave him land to build a church, the North Church. He also wrote a plaque for the church with the words ``The true essence of all existence\" and \"There is no beginning and no end, the first to make the true master of the form and sound; to proclaim benevolence and righteousness, and then to show the great power and balance of rescue.\" He also personally wrote the word \"Jingtian \" and hung it in the church. (康熙时期，由于南怀仁的影响，在1692年3月17日、19日上谕及20日礼部奏疏和22日康熙的御批中，重申了天主教不是邪教，“各省居住西洋人并无为恶乱行之处，又并非左道惑众，异端生事。喇嘛僧道等寺庙尚容人烧香行走，西洋人并无违法之事，反行禁止，似属不宜。相应将各处天主堂俱照旧存留，凡进香供奉之人，仍许照常行走，不必禁止。使命下之日，通行直隶各省可也。”这一系列文件，构成了完整的宽容法令，是西方传教士“正教奉传”的唯一官方正式文件。再如所谓“敕建”，也是一种特殊的法律特许。如：1693年，康熙患疟疾，传教士张诚献金鸡纳霜使其很快痊愈，康熙赐地特许建造教堂，即北堂。他还为教堂题写了“万有真元”的匾额，及“无始无终，先作形声真主宰；宣仁宣义，聿昭拯济大权衡。”并亲书 “敬天”二字，悬挂于教堂中。) At the end of the fifty-ninth year (1720), another papal legate, Carlo Ambrosius Mezzabarba, arrived in Beijing to reaffirm the decree, to which all missionaries in China had to submit. Carlo tried to convince Xuan Ye to accept the papal decree and to allow the pope and his representatives to have jurisdiction over the diocesan churches in China. This request was detrimental to the sovereignty and monarchical authority of China and was certainly not accepted by the Kangxi Emperor. After reading the decree, he wrote on it: \"Having read the Pope's prohibition, ...... is totally unreasonable. In the future, it is better not to have Westerners in China to practise religion. They can be prohibited to avoid more troubles than it is worth!\" At this point, the relationship between the Qing Dynasty and the Holy See was completely broken, and Carlo was expelled. (五十九年（1720）底，教皇的另一使节嘉乐到北京，传达教皇禁约，在中国的全体传教士不得不表示服从。嘉乐试图说服玄烨接受教廷的禁约，并允许教皇和他的代表管辖中国境内各教区教会。这一要求有损于中国的主权和君权，当然不会为康熙帝接受。阅罢禁约，他在上面朱批：“览此告示，……比此乱言者莫过如此。以后不必西洋人在中国行教，禁止可也，免得多事！”至此，清廷与罗马教廷的关系完全破裂，嘉乐被驱逐出境。) In the year of his reign (1723), the Yongzheng Emperor issued a decree forbidding Catholicism. At that time, a Spanish missionary in Fu’an, Fujian Province, who strictly forbade Chinese believers to attend ancestor rituals, was denounced for not having received a government issued ticket, but also for collecting money to build a church without authorization, making men and women mixed in the church, and forcing virtuous girls to stay unmarried for life. Upon receiving the report, the governor of Zhejiang and Fujian, Manbao, denounced Catholicism as an evil religion and declared that even those who received tickets were not allowed to preach. He also said, \"The Westerners have built Catholic churches in the provinces and secretly preached, and gradually the people are being incited and compelled, which is not beneficial.\" The Ministry of Rites reviewed: \"Please arrange for all the Westerners in the provinces to go to Macau, except the ones sent to serve in the capital. Just as you have requested, change the Catholic Church into a public house, and strictly forbid those who wrongly join the Catholic Church.\" In 1724, Yongzheng formally approved the Ministry of Rites' proposal and ordered all Chinese in all provinces to renounce the Catholic faith, or else they would be punished by extreme punishment; all Western clergy were asked to leave the mainland of the country within six months and go to Macau.（雍正皇帝即位当年（1723年）就发布了禁止天主教的谕旨。其时，在福建福安传教的西班牙籍传教士，严禁中国教徒参加祭祖仪式，被人告发，称其既未领票，又擅自敛财建筑教堂，使男女杂处其间，强迫良家少女终身不嫁等。接到举报，浙闽总督满保即指斥天主教为邪教，宣布即使领票者亦不得传教。并上疏言称：“西洋人在各省起盖天主堂，潜往行教，人心渐被煽惑，毫无裨益。”礼部复议：“请将各省西洋人，除送京效力外，余俱安插澳门，应如所请，天主堂改为公所，误入其教者，严行饬禁。”雍正于1724年正式批准礼部的复议，着令各省凡是信奉天主教的中国人一律放弃信仰，否则将处以极刑；各西洋教士限半年内离境，前往澳门。） After the reign of Qianlong, because of his love of Western technology, crafts, etc., it is still in the Qintianjian, Ruyi Hall in the retention of Western missionaries for its effectiveness. Just as Yongzheng, he strictly prohibited the spread of Catholicism in China, Chinese people are strictly prohibited to join the Church. Qianlong thought: \"the country appointed Westerners to work on the calendar, and they were allowed to stay in the coutry because of their hard work is commendable. Manchu and Han people are not allowed to believe in their religion.\" Qianlong Reign, 2nd Year (1737), Beijing preacher Liu Er in accordance with the rules to the abandoned baby “washed the baby’s forehead and chanted”. He was taken by the government to the Ministry of Justice for trial. Yin Jishen, the minister of the Ministry of Justice, submitted a petition requesting Qianlong to severely punish Liu Er, the preacher, and to strictly enforce the prohibition of religion. He wrote: \"We must uproot all the evil teachings that tend to deceive the people. It was only because Westerners had mastered certain mathematical knowledge that Your Majesty's predecessors were kind to foreigners and did not force them to return from China to their homeland. Did you allow them to spread their religion in the empire, to gather our people from everywhere, and to disturb them with their heretical teachings? ...... That is, to forbid the people to join Christianity by posting notices in public, and to order those who have joined to renounce it. I beg Your Majesty's approval.\" ...Qianlong approved the memorial. The nine governors and the five county magistrates posted notices in all the streets of the capital and outside the capital by the Ministry of Justice: \"Catholicism is forbidden, and those in the religion will be taken to the Ministry for punishment.\" The missionaries who served the emperor in the palace were informed of this and hastened to report it. Father Giuseppe Castiglione even risked his life to make a plea to the emperor to lift the ban when the Emperor came to see his paintings. In the end, Qianlong gave the following order: \"The Ministry of Justice arrested and punished Liu Er for his own violation of Chinese law, a crime he deserved, and this in fact had nothing to do with Catholicism or the Westerners, admire this.\" However, the new instructions of the emperor were not implemented by the Ministry of Justice, and the documents outlawing Catholicism were still sent to all provinces of the country and posted at all crossroads, even on the doors of churches in Beijing. Giuseppe, who had risked his life to present the petition to Qianlong, was also accused, and \"people searched the palace rigorously for Giuseppe to see if he had the same petition as the one presented to the emperor in his possession\". The ban on religion was so tight that missionaries in Shaanxi and Shandong were forced to lead their followers into hiding in the mountains to avoid being caught. ...Qianlong decreed that it be approved and immediately delivered for execution. The content of the treatment was: (1) Manchus and Han Chinese were not allowed to practise Catholicism, otherwise they will be punished with heavy penalties; (2) those who had already joined the Church had to renounce their faith, otherwise they were severely punished; (3) missionaries residing in Beijing were strictly forbidden to persuade people to join the Church by teaching the science of heavenly arithmetic and calendar. (乾隆即位后，因其爱好西洋科技、工艺等，故仍在钦天监、如意馆中留有西洋传教士为之效力。但他和雍正一样，严禁天主教在华传播，严禁中国百姓入教。乾隆认为：“国家任用西洋人治历，以其勤劳可嘉，故从宽容留。满汉人民，概不准信奉其教。” 乾隆二年（１７３７），北京传道员刘二依照教规给弃婴“洗额诵经”，被官府抓获，交由刑部审理。刑部尚书尹继善上奏，请求乾隆严惩教徒刘二，严申禁教之令。他在奏折中写道：“我们必须将趋向于欺骗民众的所有邪教教理连根拔除。仅仅是由于西洋人掌握了某些数学知识，陛下的先皇才对外国人充满善意，而没有迫使他们从中国返回故里。难道曾允许他们于帝国内传播其宗教、从各处聚集吾民并以邪教教理来扰乱吾民吗……即通过公开张贴告示，而禁止民众参加基督教，并且勒令那些已经加入者放弃该宗教。臣顿首恳求陛下批准之。” 乾隆批准了这道奏折。九门提督、五城两县各衙门奉刑部之文，在京城内外大小街道都张贴告示：“禁止天主教，严拿教中人送部治罪。” 在宫中为皇帝服务的传教士们得知此事后急忙上奏。郎世宁（Ｇｉｕｓｅｐｐｅ Ｃａｓｔｉｇｌｉｏｎｅ）神父甚至在乾隆来看其作画之际，冒死呈词，请求皇帝放宽教禁。最终，乾隆特谕： “刑部拿刘二治罪，系彼自犯中国法度，是伊应得之罪，实与天主教、西洋人无干，钦此。”但是皇帝的新批示，刑部并没有执行，取缔天主教的文书依然被发往全国各省，并张贴于各个十字路口，甚至贴在北京教堂的门上。冒死向乾隆呈书的郎世宁神父也遭到指控，“人们在宫殿内严格地对郎世宁进行搜查，看他有没有夹带与呈送给皇帝的请愿书相同的文书”。④ 禁教风声很紧，陕西、山东的传教士被迫带领信徒躲进大山，以免被抓获。…乾隆下旨批准并即刻交付执行。其处理意见的内容为：（1）满人、汉人不得信奉天主教，否则处以重刑；（2）已入教的要放弃信仰，否则要受到严处；（3）严禁居留北京的传教士藉传习天算历学而劝人入教。)” §REF§(Zhang, Xianqing, 2021) Zhang, Xianqing. 2021. Undercurrents of Empire: Catholicism, Underclass Order, and the Living World in the Pre-Qing Period. Beijing: Social Sciences Literature Press. Seshat URL: §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "present", "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "CnQingE", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796, "long_name": "Early Qing", "new_name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ <br>The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.<br>We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. <i>The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Qing ruled over an expansive empire, and its bureaucracy was more efficient than that of previous periods. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Qing rulers adopted the Chinese bureaucratic system first used in the Han and Tang Dynasties. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Dynasty Government, Administration and Law'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-admin.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Before conquering the Ming, the Qing managed its population through a system of hereditary military organizations called the Eight Banners. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 39) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ These became part of the administrative structure of the Qing Dynasty and were only open to those of Manchu descent. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 39) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ In the later Qing period, however, the Eight Banners lost some of their political functions and served to enhance the prestige of the top Qing nobility. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 40) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ <br>The central government was headed by the emperor and included a 'Grand Council', created by the Yongzheng emperor and expanded by the Qianlong emperor. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 173) Peter Lorge. 2005. <i>War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ The Grand Council ruled over the central ministries and provided a way for the emperor to circumvent the official bureaucracy for many decisions. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 173) Peter Lorge. 2005. <i>War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>The Qing provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, country magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. <i>The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility</i>. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§ In the early Qing years, provinces were ruled by high ranking officials who were typically of Manchu descent. §REF§ (Hsu 2006, 415) Cho-yun Hsu. 2006. <i>China: A New Cultural History</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. §REF§ <br>The territory of the Qing empire was more than double that of the Ming. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Tibetans, Uighurs, Muslims, a number of Mongol groups, Burmese, Thais, and indigenous Taiwanese were incorporated into the Chinese empire. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>Three Qing emperors - Kangxi (1662-1722 CE), Yongzheng (1723-1735 CE), and Qianlong (1736-1795 CE) - are historically known as great rulers. During their reigns, China was extremely prosperous. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Qianlong is famous for leading ten military expeditions, including campaigns in Taiwan, Burma, Vietnam and Nepal. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>Based on Chinese census and registration counts, the population of China in 1749 CE was about 177.5 million. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ The following century was one of extremely rapid population growth, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ Historian James Z. Gao writes that the area within the Qing court's 'sphere of influence' at its peak was 13.1 million square kilometres'. §REF§ (Gao 2009, xxxvi) James Z. Gao. 2009. <i>Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800-1949)</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ <br>While the Qing period is not well known for poetry, painting and porcelain as previous periods are, print journalism, theatre and novels flourished under the Qing emperors. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 2) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:40:34.789180Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 235, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘“From almost the beginning of Japanese history until 1945, the government has dictated what religion the people must follow, whether or not they attach any value to that belief system. With the exception of Christianity during the Tokugawa shogunate, Japanese people were allowed to follow any private religious belief they chose in addition to the state sponsored religion. Seen in this way, one can begin to understand the dichotomy that is Japanese religion. If the state religion was not one to which a person had any personal affinity, one would simply celebrate the festivals and register at the type of shrine or temple that was required, and that was the end of it. In many cases, the Japanese people became so used to just doing what was required of them to satisfy the government that religion itself lost all real meaning.” §REF§ (Symonds, 3) Symonds, Shannon. 2005. A History of Japanese Religion: From Ancient Times to Present. New York: State University of New York Repository. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2RAFS9A4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2RAFS9A4 </b></a>§REF§”On his second visit, which lasted four and a half months from the end of April 1551, Xavier appeared before Yoshitaka in the capacity of an envoy of the highest authorities of Portuguese India, equipped with letters from the governor and the bishop of Goa, bearing exotic presents, and dressed in a splendid costume; that is, he comported with the official station of an ambassador. Yoshitaka was impressed. He responded by publicly posting his permission for the missionaries to preach and for the people to embrace the new religion in his domains. This was no small favor, because those domains at the time spread over all or parts of ten provinces, stretching from Bingo in the east to Hizen in the west. […]As a result of the daimyo's evident approval of the missionaries' […]and despite the furious counterattacks of the Buddhist clergy, within two months some five hundred of the curious were converted. Many of the converts were from noble families, \"fidalgos.\" * This success in Yamaguchi laid the foundation of the policy of reliance on the daimyo that the Jesuits subsequently pursued in their Japanese mission.” §REF§ (Elisonas, 313-314) Elisonas, Jurgis. 2008. ‘Christianity and the daimyo’. In The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GT7KKI4B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GT7KKI4B </b></a>§REF§“As a result of the daimyo's evident approval of the missionaries' […]and despite the furious counterattacks of the Buddhist clergy, within two months some five hundred of the curious were converted. Many of the converts were from noble families, \"fidalgos.\" * This success in Yamaguchi laid the foundation of the policy of reliance on the daimyo that the Jesuits subsequently pursued in their Japanese mission.” §REF§ (Elisonas, 313-314) Elisonas, Jurgis. 2008. ‘Christianity and the daimyo’. In The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GT7KKI4B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GT7KKI4B </b></a>§REF§”A year into Xavier's stay in their town, the lords of Kagoshima found out that their best efforts notwithstanding, the Portuguese had chosen to anchor elsewhere. Consequently, the Shimazu prohibited any further conversions to Christianity and forced the missionaries to leave Satsuma.” §REF§ (Elisonas, 301) Elisonas, Jurgis. 2008. ‘Christianity and the daimyo’. In The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GT7KKI4B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GT7KKI4B </b></a>§REF§”the bakufu on an unspecified date in 1560 favored \"Bateren, the priest from the Kirishitan Country,\" with the issue of a public off-limits notice (kinzei) that protected the missionary from having troops quartered and inappropriate imposts levied on him and prohibited intrusions, discourtesies,and other maltreatment. This shogunal notice amounted to a permission to preach the Christian religion unharmed. With its posting, the Christian mission finally achieved the approbation of a national authority that Xavier had fruitlessly sought to obtain in 1551.” §REF§ (Elisonas, 319) Elisonas, Jurgis. 2008. ‘Christianity and the daimyo’. In The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GT7KKI4B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GT7KKI4B </b></a>§REF§“The inquisition, which took place in Nara in the early summer of 1563, had startling results. Charged by Hisahide with establishing what he assumed - the presence of religious pravity - were two of the day's most highly reputed scholars, the astronomer Yuki Yamashiro no Kami Tadamasa and none other than Ouchi Yoshitaka's former Confucian tutor, Kiyohara Ekata. On the basis of the evidence they heard, both judges accepted the truth of Christianity and requested to be baptized. The delator of the missionaries, Takayama Zusho, also embraced their new religion. §REF§ (Elisonas, 320) Elisonas, Jurgis. 2008. ‘Christianity and the daimyo’. In The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GT7KKI4B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GT7KKI4B </b></a>§REF§“Of the three conversions, Takayama Zusho's was the most impor- tant. When this samurai led his entire family to baptism in 1564, he not only committed himself to the service of Japan's early church, but he also introduced into its ranks a young recruit who would become one of its greatest representatives. This recruit was Zusho's - or, to call him by his Christian name, Dom Dario Takayama's - son Ukon (Dom Justo). Takayama Ukon would develop into the Jesuits' prize pupil even as he pursued the bloody career of a Sengoku and Momoyama warlord. […] Toward the end of spring in 1564, Lourenco (a biwa hoshi, or blind jongleur, converted by Xavier) visited Iimoriyama, and the passionate sermons of this experienced public preacher swayed no fewer than seventy-three of Nagayoshi's bushi to become Christians. Included among them were some of Nagayoshi's principal vassals […] The baptisms of this elite group were a major breakthrough, as they put the mission of the Kyoto area on a solid footing. Men such as the Yuki, Takayama, and Sanga were to prove true stalwarts of Christianity in the difficult years ahead. They are especially worthy of note because, unlike some of the barons of Kyushu, these samurai were untouched by the motive of temporal profit when they converted. Instead, they appear to have been genuinely moved by the ethos of the Christian religion. §REF§ (Elisonas, 320-321) Elisonas, Jurgis. 2008. ‘Christianity and the daimyo’. In The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GT7KKI4B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GT7KKI4B </b></a>§REF§“In a year's work beginning in late 1557, Padre Gaspar Vilela is said to have baptized thirteen hundred people on the islands of Ikitsukijima and Takushima and in the other holdings of Matsuura Takanobu's vassal, Dom Antonio Koteda Yasutsune (d. 1580), in the vicinity of Hirado. Even if one includes this considerable mass of new converts, it is unlikely that the number of Christians in Kyushu reached four thousand in that entire decade. §REF§ (Elisonas, 322) Elisonas, Jurgis. 2008. ‘Christianity and the daimyo’. In The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GT7KKI4B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GT7KKI4B </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "JpSengk", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568, "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "new_name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "During the Sengoku Period Japan was fought over by armies of samurau their nobles called the daimyo ('the great names'). The shogun became a prize to control and the capital at Kyoto was devastated by war. The period is also known as the Onin War and the Age of the Warring States (which translated into Japanese becomes the Sengoku jidai or Sengoku Period). §REF§ (Turnbull 2002) S Turnbull. 2002. War in Japan: 1467-1615. Osprey Publishing. §REF§ <br>There was no central government. The daimyo, supported by their close kinsmen and vassals, often had an inner council to decide on matters of administration and military policy. Military administrators known as bugyo are known to have been employed in a non-fighting capacity.<br>The dominant territory (kokka) was not defined by the borders of the traditional kuni (province) and was split into fiefs which the daiymo either directly maintained or controlled through a vassal. At times the daimyo made alliances with each other in the quest for more power. §REF§ (Turnbull 2008) S Turnbull. 2008. Samurai Armies 1467-1649. Osprey Publishing. §REF§ <br>Despite the turmoil the population during this period probably increased by five million over 100 years to about 20 million in 1568 CE.<br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 21, "name": "Kansai", "subregion": "Northeast Asia", "longitude": "135.762200000000", "latitude": "35.025280000000", "capital_city": "Kyoto", "nga_code": "JP", "fao_country": "Japan", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 14, "name": "Northeast Asia", "subregions_list": "Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 176, "year_from": 1796, "year_to": 1846, "description": "‘‘‘ \"In 1724, the Yongzheng Emperor (reigned 1722–1735) issued a formal prohibition against the propagation of the Catholic faith in the provinces. All churches were closed and followers were ordered to renounce their faith. Adopting a policy similar to that of his predecessor, the Qianlong Emperor (reigned 1735–1796) continued to ban the missionaries from entering China. In 1746, foreign missionaries were found ministering to Chinese Catholics in Fuan, Fujian province. The emperor went so far as to order all local officials to expel or execute anyone preaching or embracing Catholicism. This was followed by the persecution of the Chinese Catholics, the population of which was steadily increasing during his entire reign. In 1757, the Qianlong Emperor confined all foreign maritime trade to Canton (Guangzhou) and required each and every arriving Western vessel to be supervised by a Chinese mercantile house. Under these circumstances, it became more difficult for foreign missionaries to preach or perform priesthood duties in local communities. Many church activities were forced to cease or be driven underground.\" (Lai and Wu 2019: 4) However, Christian missionaires were allowed to proselytise in 1860: “Further fomenting public anger was the presence of foreign missionaries, who in 1860 had gained the right to proselytize and build churches throughout the empire.” §REF§ (Xiong and Hammond 2019, 313) Xiong, Victor Cunrui and Kenneth J. Hammond. 2019. Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History. London and New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9RC9JSM7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9RC9JSM7 </b></a> §REF§“When did the \"lifting of the ban\" on religion in China really take place? From a legal perspective, it could be traced back to the reply by the Qing central government to Qiying on December 14, 1844. However, in terms of practical implementation, … the Daoguang Emperor's approval of the \"lifting of the ban\" was primarily aimed at deceiving foreign diplomats, and had not been intended for public dissemination or actual enforcement. Consequently, it would be inappropriate to regard this event as the true lifting of the ban … It was not until March 18, 1846, when Qiying made the announcement regarding the lifting of the ban in Guangzhou, and the decree to lift the ban on religion was officially made public, that the ordinary people gained access to the news. Only at that point, did the lifting of the ban gain its true significance for Chinese people. It was considered the authentic lifting of the ban, as it opened up opportunities for preaching to a larger audience (真正的“弛禁”从何时开始呢？从法理上说，应从前揭1844年12月14日清中央对耆英“节略”的批复开始。但从实际执行来看……道光的“弛禁”批复主要是为了糊弄法使的外交文章，并不准备向民众公布，也不准备真正实行。对国人来说，这时还不能说是真正开禁。……1846年3月18日，耆英在广州公布弛禁上谕， 解除教禁的政令至此公开化。传教需有受众，对一般中国人来说，真正意义上的弛禁是从这时开始。).” §REF§ Guo, Weidong, \"Several Issues in the Evolution of the Qing Dynasty's Religious Prohibitions Policy,\" Anhui Historical Studies 1, no. 1 (2000). §REF§ “In 1856-1860, the Second Opium War erupted, and China was defeated again, signing the unequal treaties of the Treaty of Tianjin and the Treaty of Beijing with the Great Britain and France, respectively. The Treaty of Tianjin in 1858 allowed British, French, and other nationals to travel, trade, and freely preach in the interior of China. The Treaty of Beijing in 1860 stipulated the return of confiscated Catholic Church property and allowed French missionaries to \"rent land and build churches at their discretion\" in various provinces. Thus, the ban on Christianity implemented since the Kangxi reign was eroded under the coercion of Western powers.（1856-1860年又爆发了第二次鸦片战争，中国再次战败，与英法签订了《天津条约》《北京条约》 等不平等条约。1858年的 《天津条约》 规定英、法等国人可往内地游历、通商、自由传教。1860年的《北京条约》中规定退还以前没收的天主堂资产，法国还擅自在中文约本上增加:“并任法国传教士在各省租买田地，建造自便。” 这样一来，康熙年间开始的禁教政策就在西方列强的强迫下瓦解了。）” §REF§ Ding, Li. (2011). The development of Christianity in China since modern times. Theory Horizon, 11(458), 103-106. §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "present", "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "CnQingL", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912, "long_name": "Late Qing", "new_name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ <br>The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.<br>We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. <i>The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.<br>From 1850 to 1864 CE, China was racked by the fourteen-year Taiping Rebellion. The rebellion directly caused 30 million deaths and destroyed many regions in the middle and lower Yangtze. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 198) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In 1853, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace established a capital in Nanjing, but the rebellion was defeated by armies led by local governors in 1864. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A number of serious uprisings followed the Taiping Rebellion, including the Nian Rebellion (1853-1868 CE). §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>At the same time, the Qing emperors were facing economic problems due to the actions of foreign powers. In the 1830s, British merchants began illegally importing opium to China, where high demand for the drug led to a large trade imbalance. China's economy was drained of silver §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 157) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and the value of copper coins depreciated. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The First Opium War broke out in 1839 CE when a Chinese commissioner attempted to block opium trade in Guangzhou harbour. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The Second Opium War of 1858 CE was a series of military actions by the British and French against the Qing. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The resulting treaties allowed foreign powers to establish concessions in China, abolished taxes for French and British merchants, and forced the Qing to pay large amounts of silver in damages. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The 19th century saw increasingly frequent intrusions by foreign powers. Foreign merchants exploited their tax-free status, to the detriment of local Chinese producers. China was forced to cede much of its territory in Vietnam, Burma and elsewhere. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ By the end of the 19th century, a range of foreign powers including Great Britain, Japan, Germany, and France claimed colonial territories in China. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A peasant uprising known as the Boxer Rebellion targeted foreigners in 1900 CE.<br>In 1860, the Qing rulers were exiled outside the Great Wall when foreign invaders burned down the Summer Palace. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The court was restored by the regent Empress Dowager Cixi and Prince Gong in what is known as the Tongzhi restoration. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ However, the dynasty was finally overthrown in the Revolution of 1911 and the Republic of China was founded.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Late Qing maintained a traditional imperial-style Chinese government headed by an emperor and central bureaucracy. Provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, county magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. <i>The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility</i>. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§ The Qing were deeply opposed to modernization: the scholars Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao had to flee after attempting to reform government practices in 1898 CE. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Rebellions in the 19th century led to the rise of local governors and military commanders, who acted as warlords to control their local regions. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The period between the mid-18th and mid-19th centuries was one of extremely rapid population growth in Late Qing China, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ However, a number of censuses after that date could not be completed due to the rebellions.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:41:02.301719Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 177, "year_from": 1861, "year_to": 1912, "description": "‘‘‘ \"In 1724, the Yongzheng Emperor (reigned 1722–1735) issued a formal prohibition against the propagation of the Catholic faith in the provinces. All churches were closed and followers were ordered to renounce their faith. Adopting a policy similar to that of his predecessor, the Qianlong Emperor (reigned 1735–1796) continued to ban the missionaries from entering China. In 1746, foreign missionaries were found ministering to Chinese Catholics in Fuan, Fujian province. The emperor went so far as to order all local officials to expel or execute anyone preaching or embracing Catholicism. This was followed by the persecution of the Chinese Catholics, the population of which was steadily increasing during his entire reign. In 1757, the Qianlong Emperor confined all foreign maritime trade to Canton (Guangzhou) and required each and every arriving Western vessel to be supervised by a Chinese mercantile house. Under these circumstances, it became more difficult for foreign missionaries to preach or perform priesthood duties in local communities. Many church activities were forced to cease or be driven underground.\" (Lai and Wu 2019: 4) However, Christian missionaires were allowed to proselytise in 1860: “Further fomenting public anger was the presence of foreign missionaries, who in 1860 had gained the right to proselytize and build churches throughout the empire.” §REF§ (Xiong and Hammond 2019, 313) Xiong, Victor Cunrui and Kenneth J. Hammond. 2019. Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History. London and New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9RC9JSM7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9RC9JSM7 </b></a> §REF§“When did the \"lifting of the ban\" on religion in China really take place? From a legal perspective, it could be traced back to the reply by the Qing central government to Qiying on December 14, 1844. However, in terms of practical implementation, … the Daoguang Emperor's approval of the \"lifting of the ban\" was primarily aimed at deceiving foreign diplomats, and had not been intended for public dissemination or actual enforcement. Consequently, it would be inappropriate to regard this event as the true lifting of the ban … It was not until March 18, 1846, when Qiying made the announcement regarding the lifting of the ban in Guangzhou, and the decree to lift the ban on religion was officially made public, that the ordinary people gained access to the news. Only at that point, did the lifting of the ban gain its true significance for Chinese people. It was considered the authentic lifting of the ban, as it opened up opportunities for preaching to a larger audience (真正的“弛禁”从何时开始呢？从法理上说，应从前揭1844年12月14日清中央对耆英“节略”的批复开始。但从实际执行来看……道光的“弛禁”批复主要是为了糊弄法使的外交文章，并不准备向民众公布，也不准备真正实行。对国人来说，这时还不能说是真正开禁。……1846年3月18日，耆英在广州公布弛禁上谕， 解除教禁的政令至此公开化。传教需有受众，对一般中国人来说，真正意义上的弛禁是从这时开始。).” §REF§ Guo, Weidong, \"Several Issues in the Evolution of the Qing Dynasty's Religious Prohibitions Policy,\" Anhui Historical Studies 1, no. 1 (2000). §REF§ “In 1856-1860, the Second Opium War erupted, and China was defeated again, signing the unequal treaties of the Treaty of Tianjin and the Treaty of Beijing with the Great Britain and France, respectively. The Treaty of Tianjin in 1858 allowed British, French, and other nationals to travel, trade, and freely preach in the interior of China. The Treaty of Beijing in 1860 stipulated the return of confiscated Catholic Church property and allowed French missionaries to \"rent land and build churches at their discretion\" in various provinces. Thus, the ban on Christianity implemented since the Kangxi reign was eroded under the coercion of Western powers.（1856-1860年又爆发了第二次鸦片战争，中国再次战败，与英法签订了《天津条约》《北京条约》 等不平等条约。1858年的 《天津条约》 规定英、法等国人可往内地游历、通商、自由传教。1860年的《北京条约》中规定退还以前没收的天主堂资产，法国还擅自在中文约本上增加:“并任法国传教士在各省租买田地，建造自便。” 这样一来，康熙年间开始的禁教政策就在西方列强的强迫下瓦解了。）” §REF§ Ding, Li. (2011). The development of Christianity in China since modern times. Theory Horizon, 11(458), 103-106. §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "CnQingL", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912, "long_name": "Late Qing", "new_name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ <br>The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.<br>We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. <i>The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.<br>From 1850 to 1864 CE, China was racked by the fourteen-year Taiping Rebellion. The rebellion directly caused 30 million deaths and destroyed many regions in the middle and lower Yangtze. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 198) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In 1853, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace established a capital in Nanjing, but the rebellion was defeated by armies led by local governors in 1864. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A number of serious uprisings followed the Taiping Rebellion, including the Nian Rebellion (1853-1868 CE). §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>At the same time, the Qing emperors were facing economic problems due to the actions of foreign powers. In the 1830s, British merchants began illegally importing opium to China, where high demand for the drug led to a large trade imbalance. China's economy was drained of silver §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 157) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and the value of copper coins depreciated. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The First Opium War broke out in 1839 CE when a Chinese commissioner attempted to block opium trade in Guangzhou harbour. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The Second Opium War of 1858 CE was a series of military actions by the British and French against the Qing. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The resulting treaties allowed foreign powers to establish concessions in China, abolished taxes for French and British merchants, and forced the Qing to pay large amounts of silver in damages. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The 19th century saw increasingly frequent intrusions by foreign powers. Foreign merchants exploited their tax-free status, to the detriment of local Chinese producers. China was forced to cede much of its territory in Vietnam, Burma and elsewhere. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ By the end of the 19th century, a range of foreign powers including Great Britain, Japan, Germany, and France claimed colonial territories in China. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A peasant uprising known as the Boxer Rebellion targeted foreigners in 1900 CE.<br>In 1860, the Qing rulers were exiled outside the Great Wall when foreign invaders burned down the Summer Palace. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The court was restored by the regent Empress Dowager Cixi and Prince Gong in what is known as the Tongzhi restoration. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ However, the dynasty was finally overthrown in the Revolution of 1911 and the Republic of China was founded.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Late Qing maintained a traditional imperial-style Chinese government headed by an emperor and central bureaucracy. Provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, county magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. <i>The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility</i>. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§ The Qing were deeply opposed to modernization: the scholars Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao had to flee after attempting to reform government practices in 1898 CE. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Rebellions in the 19th century led to the rise of local governors and military commanders, who acted as warlords to control their local regions. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The period between the mid-18th and mid-19th centuries was one of extremely rapid population growth in Late Qing China, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ However, a number of censuses after that date could not be completed due to the rebellions.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:41:02.301719Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 211, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘ “Hsuan-tsang's testimony shows the pervasive presence of Buddhism under Turk rule. The most important event in the history of Buddhism among the Turks was the conversion by the Chinese monk Hui-lin of Taspar (572-81), who undertook the building of monasteries and asked the emperor of the Northern Ch'i for canonical works. Actually the first known attempt to render into Turk a siitra (the Mahaparinirvana) belongs to this period when the court of the kaghan of the Central Region became a center of Buddhist studies. Their chief promoter was the Gandharan monk Jinagupta (Jnanagupta?), who spent a little over ten years (575-85) in the entourage of Taspar and of his successor Nivar. In 581 ten Chinese monks, who had travelled to India in search of holy books but who were prevented from returning home by the persecution of Buddhists initiated by the Chou, joined Jinagupta, \"who knew the languages of foreign countries and was familiar with the scripts of distant lands.\" Together they engaged in the study, cataloguing, and translation into Chinese (and perhaps also into Turk) of the 260 Sanskrit works they had brought from India. Thus these religions found shelter and asylum among the northern Barbarians, patrons of an intellectual undertaking of great importance for the spread of Buddhism. Most Buddhist activity took place within the domain of the Eastern or Northern Turks, but the western parts were also open to Buddhist missionary activities, as is witnessed by the friendly reception offered by T'ung yabghu to the Indian monk Prabhakaramitra. […] All in all, religious tolerance appears to have been as characteristic of the Turks as it was to become of the Mongols of the Chinggisid period.” §REF§ (Sinor 1990: 314-315) Sinor, D. 1990. “The establishment and dissolution of the Türk empire”, In D. Sinor (ed.), The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press), pp. 285-316. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EZIGWJWB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EZIGWJWB </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "KgWTurk", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630, "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "new_name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-10-23T16:41:21.062942Z", "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 226, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘ Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that “unknown” is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era.", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "PkPreUr", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500, "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "new_name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Pre-Urban period in the Indus Valley, also known as the Early Harappan or Early Indus, started around 3200 and ended around 2600 BCE. Here we extend it to include the transitional century or so between the Early and the Mature Harappan. This period was characterized by the spread of farming communities across the Indus Basin, reaching as far as the Upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab in modern-day North India. Overall, this was not a period of great innovation, but precursors of writing appear to have emerged at this time, and, together with the appearance of seals and weights, these point to a shift in organizational complexity. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 67-72) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>No population estimates could be found in the literature. There is also no clear picture of political organization at this time - seals have been found in relevant archaeological contexts, but the existence of a bureaucratic apparatus remains unlikely. §REF§ A. Ceccarelli, personal communication to E. Cioni, February 2017. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 38, "name": "Pakistan", "subregions_list": "Pakistan", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 112, "year_from": 1857, "year_to": 1867, "description": "‘‘‘ Seemingly peaceful relations with the Muslim minority, not to mention their roles in service to the king, as well as the fact that kings \"cheerfully\" participated in Islamic rituals, all suggest no significant restrictions on Islamic activity. However, note also that, in the following quote, the author also (perhaps contradictorily) suggests Islam was seen as a \"threat\" by the ruling class; nevertheless, rather than imposing restrictions on Islamic activity, this seems to have mostly led to a reluctance or refusal to convert. Indeed, the quotes also notes that \"the majority\" of the people did not convert, implying that a minority was allowed to do so. As for Christianity, the literature consulted clearly points to persecution of missionaries between 1860 and 1867 at least, perhaps implying restrictions on conversion as well. However, we are not sure how to interpret the fact that no sources could be found providing information on the period c. 1868-1900. The fact that Christian missionary activity is usually well documented makes us reluctant to use the code \"suspected unknown\" for that period, and provisionally suggests, in this case, that Christian activity and/or Christian dealings with the government at this time, both negative and positive, were sufficiently low-profile at this time as to be negligible. “Like in Jukun, over the centuries the number of these Muslim settlers increased as the Igala evidently accommodated them. […] Peaceful contacts, travels, communications and commerce had existed between the Northern Muslims and the peoples of the non-Muslim areas. [...] [T]he rulers (especially the Attah of Igala and the Aku of Wukari) [...] utilized the services of Muslims during warfare and in preparing charms for their personal well-being. In return, these rulers cheerfully participated in some Muslim festivals and Islamic rites though they remained non-Muslims. [...] Considering their religious roles vis-à-vis the economic and political benefits inherent in them, it was natural that the ruling class saw Islam as a threat to their political, and more especially, economic existence and survival. […] [T]he ruling class and the majority of the people remained less receptive and unconverted to Islam. Indeed, since their roles were connected through rituals and festivals, these would have been compromised by their acceptance of Islam.” §REF§ (Abdulkadir 2011: 4-5, 6, 10) Mohammed Sanni Abdulkadir, 2011. “ISLAM IN THE NON-MUSLIM AREAS OF NORTHERN NIGERIA, c.1600-1960”, Ilorin Journal of Religious Studies, (IJOURELS) Vol.1 No.1, 2011, Pp.1-20. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BZHQCJFG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BZHQCJFG </b></a> §REF§ “Christianity as a religion first came to Igala land through missionary activities. The church missionary society (C.M.S.) was the first missionary group that came to the area. The C.M.S. penetrated into Idah, the royal seat of the Igala, by 1857 and succeeded in establishing a mission station there. As a result of misunderstanding between the missionary agents and the local rulers the station was later closed down (Okwoli, 1973).” §REF§ (Adama 2015: 118) Adama, Teophilus, 2015. “THE MEETING OF TWO CULTURES: IGALA TRADITIONALRELIGIOUS CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY IN INTERACTION”, International Journal of Theology and Reformed Tradition, vol.7, pp. 115-128. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9HDDJJ4T\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9HDDJJ4T </b></a> §REF§ “Also, after a honeymoon of less than three years, the Igala nobility and Atta, the Igala king at Idah, also concluded that their relationship with Crowther and his missionaries […] They brought matters to a head by arresting the Bishop and attacking his mission and agents in Idah. Crowther had to close down his mission there. […] It is not surprising that in 1867, the mission station at Idah was vandalized and the missionaries chased out of town, putting an end to the CMS experiment at Idah.” §REF§ (Kolapo 2019: 147-148) Kolapo, F.J. (2019). Management of Conversion on the Upper Niger and at the Confluence. In: Christian Missionary Engagement in Central Nigeria, 1857–1891. African Histories and Modernities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TM9Q67F2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: TM9Q67F2 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "present", "polity": { "id": 667, "name": "ni_igala_k", "start_year": 1600, "end_year": 1900, "long_name": "Igala", "new_name": "ni_igala_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 118, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "KhFunaE", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540, "long_name": "Funan I", "new_name": "kh_funan_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "'Funan' is the name the Chinese gave to the polity (or cluster of polities) that, between the 3rd and the 7th centuries CE, ruled over much of the southern portion of mainland Southeast Asia ‒ including territory that is today southern Vietnam, Thailand, and Myanmar, as well as all of Cambodia. §REF§ (West 2009, 222) Barbara West. 2009. <i>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ Most likely, what we now know as Funan emerged from Iron Age settlements around the Mekong Delta and the banks of the Mekong river. §REF§ (O'Reilly 2007, 91, 97) Dougald J. W. O'Reilly. 2007. <i>Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham: AltaMira Press. §REF§ The best known of these settlements is the archaeological site of Oc Èo ‒ hence the name 'culture of Oc Èo' to describe mainland Southeast Asian culture at this time. §REF§ (Ooi 2004, 6-7) Keat Gin Ooi. 2004. 'Introduction', in <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor</i>, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. §REF§ <br>Because it is difficult to pinpoint precisely when Funan was founded, here we use 225 CE as our start date. According to written records, this was the year in which the first Funanese embassy visited the Southern Chinese kingdom of Wu. §REF§ (Pelliot 1903, 303) Paul Pelliot. 1903. 'Le Fou-Nan'. <i>Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient</i> 3: 248-303. §REF§ We selected 539 CE as our end date, corresponding to the year King Rudravarman offered the gift of a live rhinoceros to the emperor at Beijing. This is the last time a Funanese ruler is mentioned in any existing records, and indeed it seems that Funan entered a period of gradual decline around this time, until it was supplanted by the Northern Cambodian state of Chenla or Zhenla in the 7th century. §REF§ (Tully 2005, 13) John Tully. 2005. <i>A Short History of Cambodia: From Empire to Survival</i>. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. §REF§ Chenla is the older spelling, the modern romanization of the Chinese character is Zhenla. §REF§ (Miksic, John. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email) §REF§ <br>Funan was rather prosperous, due to its privileged position at the crossroads of important trade routes that linked with India and China. Sources suggest that it reached its peak either in the mid-3rd century (when it extended its influence into Malaysia) §REF§ (Gin 2004, 11) Ooi Keat Gin. 2004. 'Introduction', in <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor</i>, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. §REF§ or between the end of the 5th and the beginning of the 6th century (when it was ruled by King Kaundinya Jayavarman and reached its maximum territorial extent, as well as the zenith of its political and economic power). §REF§ (West 2009, 223-24) Barbara West. 2009. <i>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It is not entirely clear whether Funan was a unitary state, as suggested by Chinese records, or a cluster of competing centres, or indeed the most powerful out of many such polities. §REF§ (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, 73) Ian Mabbett and David Chandler. 1995. <i>The Khmers</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ The highest political authority was probably something like a Mon-Khmer <i>poñ</i>, that is, a settlement chief. There may have been a loose hierarchy of poñ, possibly based on wealth and political influence, with the wealthiest and most powerful poñ viewed as 'kings' by the Chinese. §REF§ (Vickery 1998, 19-20) Michael Vickery. 1998. <i>Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries</i>. Chicago: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for Funan could be found in the literature, as work continues to locate and study settlements from this period. However, it is worth noting that the site of Oc Èo may have covered 450 hectares, with a possible population of many thousands of people. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 65) Michael Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. London: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 227, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘ Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that “unknown” is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era.", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on conversion", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "PkCeraN", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000, "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "new_name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jarrige, Jean-François, and Jean-François Enault. 1976. “Fouilles de Pirak - Baluchistan.” Arts Asiatiques 32 (1): 29-70. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q32UJUPX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q32UJUPX</a>. §REF§ The earliest evidence for agriculture here was found in Mehrgarh and dates to 7000 BCE. By 5500, the people of Mehrgarh had begun to rely more on bovine and ovicaprine pastoralism for their meat, as opposed to hunting. Starting from around this time, there is also an increase in the number of known farming settlements in the region, most notably Kili Ghul Mohammad, Anjira, Siah Damb, and Rana Gundai. There is evidence for an increased range of craft activities and the first granaries appeared in Mehrgarh, as well as, perhaps, small-scale irrigation. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 57-61) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It is not possible to give an accurate estimate of the region's population at this time, §REF§ (Possehl 1999, 472) Possehl, Gregory L. 1999. Indus Age: The Beginnings. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWNUD7IH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWNUD7IH</a>. §REF§ and the size of occupied Mehrgarh is uncertain, as the population shifted over time and part of the site has been cut away by the Bolan River. §REF§ (Jarrige 2013, 135-154) Jarrige, J.-F. 2013. Mehrgarh Neolithic. Paris: Éditions de Boccard. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MKZA34B\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MKZA34B</a>. §REF§ Similarly, the literature does not provide many clues as to the political organization of Mehrgarh or any other site in the region during the period, although the appearance of granaries at Mehrgarh may suggest increasing social complexity. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 61) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 38, "name": "Pakistan", "subregions_list": "Pakistan", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 324, "year_from": 1846, "year_to": 1860, "description": "‘‘‘ \"In 1724, the Yongzheng Emperor (reigned 1722–1735) issued a formal prohibition against the propagation of the Catholic faith in the provinces. All churches were closed and followers were ordered to renounce their faith. Adopting a policy similar to that of his predecessor, the Qianlong Emperor (reigned 1735–1796) continued to ban the missionaries from entering China. In 1746, foreign missionaries were found ministering to Chinese Catholics in Fuan, Fujian province. The emperor went so far as to order all local officials to expel or execute anyone preaching or embracing Catholicism. This was followed by the persecution of the Chinese Catholics, the population of which was steadily increasing during his entire reign. In 1757, the Qianlong Emperor confined all foreign maritime trade to Canton (Guangzhou) and required each and every arriving Western vessel to be supervised by a Chinese mercantile house. Under these circumstances, it became more difficult for foreign missionaries to preach or perform priesthood duties in local communities. Many church activities were forced to cease or be driven underground.\" (Lai and Wu 2019: 4) However, Christian missionaires were allowed to proselytise in 1860: “Further fomenting public anger was the presence of foreign missionaries, who in 1860 had gained the right to proselytize and build churches throughout the empire.” §REF§ (Xiong and Hammond 2019, 313) Xiong, Victor Cunrui and Kenneth J. Hammond. 2019. Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History. London and New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9RC9JSM7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9RC9JSM7 </b></a> §REF§“After the Opium War, the ban on Christianity in China began to change. In 1844, after the First Opium War, the French envoy, Joseph Théodose Marie Melchior de Lagrené, proposed the abolition of the ban on Catholicism. Following negotiations, Emperor Daoguang issued an edict stating, \"In the future, whether domestic or foreign, anyone who studies and adheres to Catholicism in accordance with the rules shall not be punished.\" Foreign missionaries were “only permitted to build churches for worship in the treaty ports and were forbidden from preaching in the interior of the country. ” … On November 6th, Daoguang approved the statement that \"Catholicism is revered in this country and is not regarded as a heretical religion in China. The reason for punishing those who use religion for evil is due to the misuse of religion by Chinese believers, not because of a ban on the Chinese people's veneration of it.\" The court's intention was clear: to regulate the Chinese, but not foreigners' religious beliefs in China. The doors of Christianity remained closed to the Chinese people … In late 1844, copies of the edict were circulated by Qiying to various regions to inform officials to exempt priests and believers from punishment. On March 18, 1846, the edict was publicly announced in Guangzhou, and the lifting of the ban on Christianity became official. Christian missionary work required an audience, and for the general Chinese population, the true meaning of the lifting of the ban began at this time. (鸦片战争后，禁教局面开始改变。道光二十四年（1844年），中法战争之后，法国公使喇萼呢提出废除对天主教的禁令。经谈判，道光皇帝发布谕旨：“嗣后无论中外民人，凡有学习信奉天主教而循规蹈矩者，毫无查禁，皆免惩治”。外国传教士“只准其在通商口岸建堂礼拜，不得擅入内地传教”……11月6日，道光批复“天主教系该国所崇奉，中国并不斥为邪教，实因我国习教之人借教为恶，是以惩治其罪，并非禁该国人崇奉也”。朝廷的意思很清楚，只查中国人信教，不管在华外人的信教，基督的大门仍不准向中国人自由开放……1844年底，耆英曾将弛禁文件抄送各地，通知对教士教民免于治罪，划一办理。1846年3月18日，耆英在广州公布弛禁上谕， 解除教禁的政令至此公开化。传教需有受众，对一般中国人来说，真正意义上的弛禁是从这时开始。)” §REF§Liu, Yuan. (2016). “Negotiations between Gentry and the Qing Dynasty on the Huantang Cases: A Case Study of the Nanyang Huantang Case.” Phase Results of \"Local Gentry in Hubei Education Cases in Late Qing Dynasty (1860-1911)\" Humanities and Social Sciences Project of Hubei Provincial Department of Education. §REF§ “During the Qing Dynasty, although the ban on Christianity had been lifted, the authorities still occasionally repress on those who practiced the religion. In the third year of the Xianfeng reign (1853), the governor of Zhili Province, Naeljing'a, reported that there were 80 Christian households in Jianjiazhuang, Ansui County, and the Xianfeng Emperor ordered a thorough investigation, which resulted in the imprisonment of many people. In the fifth year of the Xianfeng reign (1855), a Catholic named Qiu Yunting from Nanhai County, Guangdong Province, went to Tianjin to \"practice medicine and treat illnesses,\" but he was arrested by the authorities in the ninth year of the Xianfeng reign (1859). In addition, during this period, there were also three cases in Fuzhou in which Christians were targeted and persecuted. (清廷虽已弛禁基督教, 但仍不时打击习教百姓。咸丰三年, 直隶总督讷尔经额奏报安肃县尖家庄习教者达80户, 咸丰帝下令严查, 结果多人被下狱。咸丰五年, 广东南海县天主教民邱云亭潜入天津 “行医治病” , 咸丰九年被官府查获。 此外, 这一时期福州也发生了3起打击教民之事。)” §REF§Zhao, Shuhao. \"A New Exploration of Qing Government's Christian Policies during the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Period.\" Historical Archives 4 (2009): 47-52. §REF§ “In 1856-1860, the Second Opium War erupted, and China was defeated again, signing the unequal treaties of the Treaty of Tianjin and the Treaty of Beijing with the Great Britain and France, respectively. The Treaty of Tianjin in 1858 allowed British, French, and other nationals to travel, trade, and freely preach in the interior of China. The Treaty of Beijing in 1860 stipulated the return of confiscated Catholic Church property and allowed French missionaries to \"rent land and build churches at their discretion\" in various provinces. Thus, the ban on Christianity implemented since the Kangxi reign was eroded under the coercion of Western powers.（1856-1860年又爆发了第二次鸦片战争，中国再次战败，与英法签订了《天津条约》《北京条约》 等不平等条约。1858年的 《天津条约》 规定英、法等国人可往内地游历、通商、自由传教。1860年的《北京条约》中规定退还以前没收的天主堂资产，法国还擅自在中文约本上增加:“并任法国传教士在各省租买田地，建造自便。” 这样一来，康熙年间开始的禁教政策就在西方列强的强迫下瓦解了。）” §REF§ Ding, Li. (2011). The development of Christianity in China since modern times. Theory Horizon, 11(458), 103-106. §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": "2023-12-11T17:02:42.694061Z", "modified_date": "2023-12-11T17:02:42.694073Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Gov_res_conv", "coded_value": "P~A", "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "CnQingL", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912, "long_name": "Late Qing", "new_name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ <br>The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.<br>We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. <i>The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.<br>From 1850 to 1864 CE, China was racked by the fourteen-year Taiping Rebellion. The rebellion directly caused 30 million deaths and destroyed many regions in the middle and lower Yangtze. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 198) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In 1853, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace established a capital in Nanjing, but the rebellion was defeated by armies led by local governors in 1864. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A number of serious uprisings followed the Taiping Rebellion, including the Nian Rebellion (1853-1868 CE). §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>At the same time, the Qing emperors were facing economic problems due to the actions of foreign powers. In the 1830s, British merchants began illegally importing opium to China, where high demand for the drug led to a large trade imbalance. China's economy was drained of silver §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 157) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and the value of copper coins depreciated. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The First Opium War broke out in 1839 CE when a Chinese commissioner attempted to block opium trade in Guangzhou harbour. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The Second Opium War of 1858 CE was a series of military actions by the British and French against the Qing. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The resulting treaties allowed foreign powers to establish concessions in China, abolished taxes for French and British merchants, and forced the Qing to pay large amounts of silver in damages. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The 19th century saw increasingly frequent intrusions by foreign powers. Foreign merchants exploited their tax-free status, to the detriment of local Chinese producers. China was forced to cede much of its territory in Vietnam, Burma and elsewhere. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ By the end of the 19th century, a range of foreign powers including Great Britain, Japan, Germany, and France claimed colonial territories in China. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A peasant uprising known as the Boxer Rebellion targeted foreigners in 1900 CE.<br>In 1860, the Qing rulers were exiled outside the Great Wall when foreign invaders burned down the Summer Palace. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The court was restored by the regent Empress Dowager Cixi and Prince Gong in what is known as the Tongzhi restoration. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ However, the dynasty was finally overthrown in the Revolution of 1911 and the Republic of China was founded.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Late Qing maintained a traditional imperial-style Chinese government headed by an emperor and central bureaucracy. Provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, county magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. <i>The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility</i>. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§ The Qing were deeply opposed to modernization: the scholars Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao had to flee after attempting to reform government practices in 1898 CE. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Rebellions in the 19th century led to the rise of local governors and military commanders, who acted as warlords to control their local regions. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The period between the mid-18th and mid-19th centuries was one of extremely rapid population growth in Late Qing China, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ However, a number of censuses after that date could not be completed due to the rebellions.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:41:02.301719Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }