Gov Res Prop Own For Rel Grp List

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            "description": "‘‘‘ The following quote implies that Christians could not own property before 313 CE. \"This agreement is now known as the edict of Milan, though it has been pointed out that it was published in the form of a letter or epistula, so it was not strictly an edictum, and it was issued in the eastern dioceses under Licinius in 313, and not from Milan by the two Emperors in 312. [...] The main terms of the epistula provided for free worship of whatsoever god in the heavens an individual thought most fitting (quicquid divinitatis est in sede caelesti), authorized the restoration of property to the Christians and allowed them to own property, and most important, that Christianity became a legitimate religion within the Roman Empire. The inclusion of all religions in this all-embracing measure went further than the previous edicts of toleration of Diocletian and Galerius, and its divinitatis provisions were to prove more durable for the Christians, with the exception of continued persecution under Maximinus, and allegedly by Licinius himself. For pagans, it was the calm before the storm, but for the time being all religions were equal, with the unspoken subtext that the interests of the state took priority. §REF§ (Southern 2015, 292) Southern, Pat. 2015. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine Second edition. London and New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B9AQZ4RJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B9AQZ4RJ </b></a> §REF§",
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                "general_description": "The Roman Principate is generally regarded as ending during or just after the crisis of the 3rd century CE (235-284 CE). The date of 284 CE marks the accession of Diocletian §REF§ (Boatwright et al. 2012, 438) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. <i>The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire</i>. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§  and the period includes the Constantinian Dynasty (305-363 CE), Valentinian Dynasty (364-378 CE) and the early part of the Theodosian dynasty (379-457 CE). According to the historian David Baker, the 'Eastern Empire enjoyed an expansion phase c. 285-450'. §REF§ (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. 'The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory'. <i>Cliodynamics</i> 2 (2): 217-51. §REF§  The period ends after the reign of Theodosius, the last emperor to rule over both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire. §REF§ (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. <i>The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East</i>. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§ <br>Near the end of the 3rd century, beginning at the end of the Severan Dynasty, the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes, including the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain and suffered several significant losses in battle to the Sassanids. Under first the Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) then Diocletian (r. 284-305), all territory was recovered and a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire, which we refer to as the Dominate (denoting the increasing centralization of authority and the development of a large bureaucratic apparatus). This period saw notably the increasing popularization of Christianity, culminating in its acceptance as the official state religion under the Emperor Theodosius at the end of the period. The late 3rd century also saw the Empire split into two distinct administrative halves: a Western half, with its capital at Rome, and an Eastern one, ruled first from Nicomedia in Anatolia and then from Byzantium (re-founded as Constantinople, modern-day Istanbul, by the Emperor Constantine I the Great in 330 CE). Each half was ruled by a different emperor along with a junior colleague, titled 'Caesar'. This arrangement is known as the Tetrarchy ('rule of four'), which lasted until Constantine I managed to once again rule both halves together. The Empire was divided a few more times, until Theodosius (r. 379-392 CE) united it for the final time. In 393, Theodosius once more divided the Empire, naming Arcadius Emperor in the East and Honorius Emperor in the West. This marks the end of the Dominate period, leading to a period of instability and, ultimately, the collapse of the Roman state in the west, yet recovery and the continuation of Roman rule in the east (which became known as the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople's original name).<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Dominate period, the power centre of the Roman Empire shifted decisively away from Rome and Italy, beset by decades of crisis and civil infighting, to Anatolia; specifically, to the old Greek city of Byzantium that was re-founded and glorified by the Emperor Constantine I. Before this, Diocletian brought stability back to the Empire after the crises of the 3rd century CE by inaugurating a series of administrative and economic reforms. Although most offices and institutions of the preceding Principate period were retained, Diocletian increased the number of provinces, adding more governors and provincial officials who reported directly to the emperor, and further split the empire into two halves to aid in the administration of such a vast and diverse territory. §REF§ (Black 2008, 181) Jeremy Black. 2008. <i>World History Atlas</i>. London: Dorling Kindersley. §REF§  §REF§ (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. <i>The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  The early Dominate is known for the decline of autonomy, prestige, and power of Rome's provincial elite and the concomitant rapid increase in the power of the central bureaucracy. §REF§ (Loewenstein 1973, 238) Karl Loewenstein. 1973. <i>The Governance of Rome</i>. The Hague: Martin Nijhoff. §REF§  §REF§ (Eich 2005) Peter Eich. 2005. <i>Zur Metamorphose des politischen Systems in der römischen Kaiserzeit: Die Entstehung einer \"personalen Bürokratie\" im langen dritten Jahrhundert</i>. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. §REF§  §REF§ (Eich 2015) Peter Eich. 2015. 'The Common Denominator: Late Roman Imperial Bureaucracy from a Comparative Perspective', in <i>State Power in Ancient China and Rome</i>, edited by Walter Scheidel, 90-149. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>When Constantine I established Constantinople as the capital in 330 CE, he furnished the city with a palace, hippodrome, and a great imperial bureaucracy. In terms of personnel the administration in Constantinople reached its largest extent in the 4th century with 'somewhat over thirty thousand functionaries'. §REF§ (Lendon 1997, 3) J. E. Lendon. 1997. <i>Empire of Honour: The Art of Government in the Roman World</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Constantine was the first emperor to vigorously promote Christian religion and his patronage of the Christian church laid the foundations of a Christian empire. 'He built grand churches at the sacred loci of Christianity, including churches celebrating Christ's birth, baptism, and resurrection and Peter's death in Rome. ... Constantine's successors would continue this pattern. Many churches would become quite wealthy. Their clergy were exempt from taxation and other onerous obligations like labor.' §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 20) Kevin Madigan. 2015. <i>Medieval Christianity: A New History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ <br>The Empire, creaking under its vast territory of 4.5 million square kilometres, supported a population of up to 70 million people. Rome had lost population from its peak under the Principate, probably supporting around 800,000 in 300 CE and around 500,000 by the beginning of the 5th century. Constantinople also had slightly under 500,000 inhabitants, though it developed rapidly under the patronage of Constantine I and his successors and became the new centre of literacy and culture in the Roman world - rivalling, if not surpassing, Rome herself. §REF§ (Lee 2013, 76) A. D. Lee. 2013. <i>From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. §REF§",
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                "general_description": "The Roman Principate is generally regarded as ending during or just after the crisis of the 3rd century CE (235-284 CE). The date of 284 CE marks the accession of Diocletian §REF§ (Boatwright et al. 2012, 438) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. <i>The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire</i>. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§  and the period includes the Constantinian Dynasty (305-363 CE), Valentinian Dynasty (364-378 CE) and the early part of the Theodosian dynasty (379-457 CE). According to the historian David Baker, the 'Eastern Empire enjoyed an expansion phase c. 285-450'. §REF§ (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. 'The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory'. <i>Cliodynamics</i> 2 (2): 217-51. §REF§  The period ends after the reign of Theodosius, the last emperor to rule over both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire. §REF§ (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. <i>The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East</i>. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§ <br>Near the end of the 3rd century, beginning at the end of the Severan Dynasty, the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes, including the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain and suffered several significant losses in battle to the Sassanids. Under first the Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) then Diocletian (r. 284-305), all territory was recovered and a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire, which we refer to as the Dominate (denoting the increasing centralization of authority and the development of a large bureaucratic apparatus). This period saw notably the increasing popularization of Christianity, culminating in its acceptance as the official state religion under the Emperor Theodosius at the end of the period. The late 3rd century also saw the Empire split into two distinct administrative halves: a Western half, with its capital at Rome, and an Eastern one, ruled first from Nicomedia in Anatolia and then from Byzantium (re-founded as Constantinople, modern-day Istanbul, by the Emperor Constantine I the Great in 330 CE). Each half was ruled by a different emperor along with a junior colleague, titled 'Caesar'. This arrangement is known as the Tetrarchy ('rule of four'), which lasted until Constantine I managed to once again rule both halves together. The Empire was divided a few more times, until Theodosius (r. 379-392 CE) united it for the final time. In 393, Theodosius once more divided the Empire, naming Arcadius Emperor in the East and Honorius Emperor in the West. This marks the end of the Dominate period, leading to a period of instability and, ultimately, the collapse of the Roman state in the west, yet recovery and the continuation of Roman rule in the east (which became known as the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople's original name).<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Dominate period, the power centre of the Roman Empire shifted decisively away from Rome and Italy, beset by decades of crisis and civil infighting, to Anatolia; specifically, to the old Greek city of Byzantium that was re-founded and glorified by the Emperor Constantine I. Before this, Diocletian brought stability back to the Empire after the crises of the 3rd century CE by inaugurating a series of administrative and economic reforms. Although most offices and institutions of the preceding Principate period were retained, Diocletian increased the number of provinces, adding more governors and provincial officials who reported directly to the emperor, and further split the empire into two halves to aid in the administration of such a vast and diverse territory. §REF§ (Black 2008, 181) Jeremy Black. 2008. <i>World History Atlas</i>. London: Dorling Kindersley. §REF§  §REF§ (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. <i>The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  The early Dominate is known for the decline of autonomy, prestige, and power of Rome's provincial elite and the concomitant rapid increase in the power of the central bureaucracy. §REF§ (Loewenstein 1973, 238) Karl Loewenstein. 1973. <i>The Governance of Rome</i>. The Hague: Martin Nijhoff. §REF§  §REF§ (Eich 2005) Peter Eich. 2005. <i>Zur Metamorphose des politischen Systems in der römischen Kaiserzeit: Die Entstehung einer \"personalen Bürokratie\" im langen dritten Jahrhundert</i>. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. §REF§  §REF§ (Eich 2015) Peter Eich. 2015. 'The Common Denominator: Late Roman Imperial Bureaucracy from a Comparative Perspective', in <i>State Power in Ancient China and Rome</i>, edited by Walter Scheidel, 90-149. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>When Constantine I established Constantinople as the capital in 330 CE, he furnished the city with a palace, hippodrome, and a great imperial bureaucracy. In terms of personnel the administration in Constantinople reached its largest extent in the 4th century with 'somewhat over thirty thousand functionaries'. §REF§ (Lendon 1997, 3) J. E. Lendon. 1997. <i>Empire of Honour: The Art of Government in the Roman World</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Constantine was the first emperor to vigorously promote Christian religion and his patronage of the Christian church laid the foundations of a Christian empire. 'He built grand churches at the sacred loci of Christianity, including churches celebrating Christ's birth, baptism, and resurrection and Peter's death in Rome. ... Constantine's successors would continue this pattern. Many churches would become quite wealthy. Their clergy were exempt from taxation and other onerous obligations like labor.' §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 20) Kevin Madigan. 2015. <i>Medieval Christianity: A New History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ <br>The Empire, creaking under its vast territory of 4.5 million square kilometres, supported a population of up to 70 million people. Rome had lost population from its peak under the Principate, probably supporting around 800,000 in 300 CE and around 500,000 by the beginning of the 5th century. Constantinople also had slightly under 500,000 inhabitants, though it developed rapidly under the patronage of Constantine I and his successors and became the new centre of literacy and culture in the Roman world - rivalling, if not surpassing, Rome herself. §REF§ (Lee 2013, 76) A. D. Lee. 2013. <i>From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. §REF§",
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            "description": "Though the Ecloga itself can tell us nothing about how non-Orthodox were viewed in Byzantine law, that is not the case with an appendix to the lawbook composed sometime after the promulgation of the Ecloga in 741. This appendix, known in the scholarly literature as the Appendix Eclogae, is of murky provenance, with one recent author provocatively suggesting this law text was in fact an imperial initiative undertaken to fill gaps left by the Ecloga. These thematic gaps included, inter alia, the legal status for non-Orthodox, and in fact various legal restrictions are listed for this group in Title 3 of the Appendix Eclogae. Indeed, the title suggests that by the time of its compilation, that is probably from the middle of the eighth century, all of the empire’s subjects coule be broadly divided into Orthodox and non-Orthodox. This dichotomy between Orthodox and non-Orthodox would become a defining characteristic of Byzantine law: the latter could be Jews, heretics, or pagans, but as non-Orthodox they were subjected to greater or lesser curtailments in various spheres, including holding public office, serving in the army, celebrating religious services, acting as witnesses, inheriting, and marrying.”§REF§(Chitwood 2020, 172) Chitwood, Z. 2020. Muslims and Non-Orthodox Christians in Byzantine Law until ca. 1100. In E. Cavanaugh (ed) Empire and Legal Thought: Ideas and Institutions from Antiquity to Modernity pp. 167-188. Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8S7ZVM8H/library §REF§",
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            "polity": {
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                "name": "TrByzM1",
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                "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I",
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                "general_description": "The first Byzantine period, which lasts from 632 CE in the reign of Heraclius (r.610-641 CE) to 866 CE at the end of the reign of Michael III (r.842-867 CE) §REF§ (Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) H W Haussig. J M Hussey, trans. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§  was in many ways characterized by the Greek response to the Arab expansion. This and other developments led to a dramatic transformation of Byzantium with regard to dimension and complexity of the society. §REF§ (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences §REF§ <br>The signature change was the reform of Byzantine control of the regions with the introduction of themes introduced under Constantine IV 668-685 CE §REF§ (Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§  headed by commanders called strategi. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 178) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§  This was a progressive development as provinces still existed with the first themes, the last European theme (Nicopolis or Dalmatia) being set up about 900 CE. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 96-97) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ <br>Reform of the regions into themes was directly reflected with administrative reforms at the capital. At the professional imperial administration in Constantinople, taxation and military administration was 'fused' about 680 CE into a single office called 'logothete tou stratiotikou.' \"In this office, taxation and military administration were made the responsibility of one minister in the central government. The officials concerned with the muster rolls of the soldiers and with the collection of the annona were thus combined in a single functionary.\" §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 97-98) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ <br>From Justinian II (r.668-711 CE) the strategi gained powers of tax collection and each individual theme had a logothete who behaved like the logothete tou stratiotikou in Constantinople. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 98) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§  \"Thus there grew up this fusion of military and civil authority which spread over the whole Empire with the introduction of the themes and undermined the control exercised by the state.\" §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 97) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§  However, while control from the center was lost, the Byzantines gained the ability to more flexibly respond to external threats.<br>After the shock of losing 1 million km2 of territory by 700 CE to the expanding Islamic Caliphate the reforms eventually appear to have put the Byzantine state, and its 5 million inhabitants, on a stronger footing. While the 695-717 CE period was known for being a period of anarchy by the ninth century military success had slightly increased the land area to 520,000 km2. §REF§ (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) §REF§  Basileus Theophilus (r.829-842 CE) was able to finance a major construction spree. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 169) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ ",
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            "description": "‘‘‘ “The middle of the ninth century saw the demonization of the Buddhist monastic community raised to the national political level. In the early 840s, the Emperor Wuzong 武宗 (r. 840–846) issued a series of edicts targeting Buddhist and other non-indigenous religious establishments. These culminated in a general suppression in 845, the terms of which required the destruction of Buddhist shrines, confiscations of monastic estates, and the laicization of all Buddhist monks and nuns. Although the opportunity to confiscate the wealth of the religious establishments and return clergy to the tax rolls was certainly a dimension of the initiative, the most comprehensive edict issued by the emperor in the eighth month of 845 made the same connection to values and social stability that Han Yu had articulated four decades earlier.” §REF§ (DeBlasi 2019, 153-154) DeBlasi, Anthony. 2019. ‘The Tang Dynasty II (756–907)’ In Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History, Edited by Victor Cunrui Xiong and Kenneth J. Hammond. London and New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MDKC29S6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MDKC29S6 </b></a> §REF§ “Monasteries also conducted elaborate collective mortuary and memorial rites for the thousands of soldiers who perished in Tang military campaigns. Apart from Emperor Wuzong’s attempted suppression and mass confiscation of Buddhist property in 845, which lasted only a year, no emperor ever questioned the place of Buddhism within the Tang state.” §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 215) Lewis, Mark Edward. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. London: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P9RSHZKQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: P9RSHZKQ </b></a> §REF§",
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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The imam-caliph retreated into a palace that contained a harem run by a 'hierarchical corps of eunuchs'. §REF§ (Hamblin 2004) William J. Hamblin. 2013. 'Egypt: Fatimids, Later (1073-1171): Army and Administration', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>Provinces were ruled through vassals. After the foundation of Cairo, North Africa was 'abandoned' to the Zirid (972-1148 CE) and Hammadid (1015-1152 CE) Dynasties. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 242) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Within Egypt, two cities enjoyed a measure of self-rule: Fustat was governed by a <i>wali</i> (governor) §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 65) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  and Alexandria also had its own budget and chief judge. §REF§ (Sanders 1998, 167) Paula A. Sanders. 1998. 'The Fatimid State, 969-1171', in <i>The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1: Islamic Egypt, 640-1517</i>, edited by Carl F. Petry, 151-74. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The rest of Egypt was divided into seven districts, §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 108) James E. Lindsay. 2005. <i>Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§  which may have been commanded by <i>amirs</i> (military governors). Towns with markets would have a <i>muhtasib</i>, who oversaw shopkeepers' and artisans' activities and ensured that religious law was correctly observed. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 65) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The Fatimids repaired and improved dams and canals §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 16) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  In Egypt the vizier, a staple of Islamic Egyptian government, was introduced to Fatimid professional administration, which may suggest that the Fatimids retained much of the lower administration present during the Ikshidid Period as well. Heads of administration are known for the military, treasury, religion, missionary activities, and the judiciary. §REF§ (Hamblin 2004) William J. Hamblin. 2013. 'Egypt: Fatimids, Later (1073-1171): Army and Administration', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§  Before 1073 CE, the vizier was a slave who did not have military powers. Between 1073 and 1121, he became the military chief and effectively replaced the iman-caliph as head of government. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 243) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The imam-caliph retreated into a palace that contained a harem run by a 'hierarchical corps of eunuchs'. §REF§ (Hamblin 2004) William J. Hamblin. 2013. 'Egypt: Fatimids, Later (1073-1171): Army and Administration', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>Provinces were ruled through vassals. After the foundation of Cairo, North Africa was 'abandoned' to the Zirid (972-1148 CE) and Hammadid (1015-1152 CE) Dynasties. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 242) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Within Egypt, two cities enjoyed a measure of self-rule: Fustat was governed by a <i>wali</i> (governor) §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 65) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. 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                "general_description": "The Fatimid Caliphate lasted from 909 to 1171 CE. After a failed uprising against the Sunni Abbasids in Syria, the head of the Ismaili Shi'a religious movement - who claimed descent from Muhammad's daughter Fatimah by way of her descendent Ismail - fled to Tunisia. There, with the help of local Berber warriors, he 'seized Ifriqiya - modern Tunisia and Eastern Algeria - took over the trans-Saharan gold-and-slave trade, built two great capitals - first Kairouan, then nearby Mahdiyya - and set up an autonomous state far from the reach of Baghdad'. §REF§ (Man 1999, 74) John Man. 1999. <i>Atlas of the Year 1000</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  From there, the Fatimids conquered much of North Africa, extending their rule into Egypt. The effective end of the Fatimid Caliphate occurred at the end of the 11th century (though the Caliphate remained nominally intact for nearly another century). At this time, a series of Fatimid viziers increased their control of the military and, ruling from their own palaces, turned the imam-caliph into a nominal figurehead. §REF§ (Walker 2006, 88) Paul E. Walker. 2006. 'The Relationship Between Chief Qadi and Chief Da'i under the Fatimids', in <i>Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies</i>, edited by Gudrun Kramer and Sabine Schmidtke, 70-94. Leiden: Brill. §REF§  Over many years in the final century, the Fatimid state experienced a long decline marked by incompetent viziers. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 73) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Although relatively little is known about the Fatimid bureaucracy during the early period (909-969 CE), we can say that it did not have a vizier. §REF§ (Walker 2011, 104) Paul E. Walker. 2011. 'Responsibilities of Political Office in a Shi'i Caliphate and the Delineation of Public Duties under the Fatimids', in <i>Islam, the State, and Political Authority: Medieval Issues and Modern Concerns</i>, edited by A. Afsaruddin, 93-110. London: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§  In Tunisia, the Fatimids used slave eunuchs to command army and naval forces, and, following the precedent of previous Islamic governments, founded cities as administrative and military centres and seats for their courts. §REF§ (Yaacov 1991, 4) Yaacov Lev. 1991. <i>State and Society in Fatimid Egypt</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. §REF§  Suggesting the presence of a highly capable full-time bureaucracy, one of their purpose-built cities, the second capital Mansuriyya (948-975 CE), was supplied with fresh water from a distant spring via an aqueduct 'modelled on the Roman system at Carthage'. §REF§ (Qutbuddin 2011, 39) Tahera Qutbuddin. 2011. 'Fatimids', in <i>Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia, Volume 2: Africa</i>, edited by Edward Ramsamy, 37-40. Los Angeles: Sage. §REF§ <br>In 969 CE, the Fatimids conquered Egypt under a military general called Jawhar. This brought the total land area under Fatimid control to 2.4 million square kilometres, §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 10) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  and the new capital city, al-Qahira (Cairo), was founded in 975 and remained the capital under the fall of the dynasty in 1171. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 241) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  In Egypt the vizier, a staple of Islamic Egyptian government, was introduced to Fatimid professional administration, which may suggest that the Fatimids retained much of the lower administration present during the Ikshidid Period as well. Heads of administration are known for the military, treasury, religion, missionary activities, and the judiciary. §REF§ (Hamblin 2004) William J. Hamblin. 2013. 'Egypt: Fatimids, Later (1073-1171): Army and Administration', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§  Before 1073 CE, the vizier was a slave who did not have military powers. Between 1073 and 1121, he became the military chief and effectively replaced the iman-caliph as head of government. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 243) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The imam-caliph retreated into a palace that contained a harem run by a 'hierarchical corps of eunuchs'. §REF§ (Hamblin 2004) William J. Hamblin. 2013. 'Egypt: Fatimids, Later (1073-1171): Army and Administration', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>Provinces were ruled through vassals. After the foundation of Cairo, North Africa was 'abandoned' to the Zirid (972-1148 CE) and Hammadid (1015-1152 CE) Dynasties. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 242) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  Within Egypt, two cities enjoyed a measure of self-rule: Fustat was governed by a <i>wali</i> (governor) §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 65) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  and Alexandria also had its own budget and chief judge. §REF§ (Sanders 1998, 167) Paula A. Sanders. 1998. 'The Fatimid State, 969-1171', in <i>The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1: Islamic Egypt, 640-1517</i>, edited by Carl F. Petry, 151-74. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The rest of Egypt was divided into seven districts, §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 108) James E. Lindsay. 2005. <i>Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§  which may have been commanded by <i>amirs</i> (military governors). Towns with markets would have a <i>muhtasib</i>, who oversaw shopkeepers' and artisans' activities and ensured that religious law was correctly observed. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 65) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The Fatimids repaired and improved dams and canals §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 16) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  and Egypt grew exceptionally prosperous under their rule, especially before the mid-10th century. Al-Qahira had eight public baths, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 54) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  a caravanserai (<i>funduq</i>) for foreign merchants, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 41) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  and possibly the most famous market in the Islamic world at the time, called the Market of the Lamps (Suq al-Qanadil). §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 42) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  The 10th-century geographer al-Muqaddasi described Suq al-Qanadil as 'the marketplace for all mankind ... It is the storehouse of the Occident, the entrepot of the Orient.' §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 106) James E. Lindsay. 2005. <i>Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§  Another contemporary traveller, Nasir-i Khusraw, reported that in Cairo the shops were 'all the sultan's property' and leased to the shop owners, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 54) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§  underscoring the power of the caliphs and their dedication to public works.<br>The population of the Fatimid Caliphate peaked at about 12-13 million in 1000 CE, but subsequently declined as territory was lost to about 4 million in 1100 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 219-29, 141-47) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Allen Lane. §REF§  By the end of the 10th century, the population of the caliphate was roughly equivalent to that of Egypt. The city of Fustat, close to Cairo, had approximately 120,000 residents, even after the fire of 1168, and multiple sources report multi-storey residential homes with up to seven levels. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 62, 65, 78) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ ",
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        {
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            "year_from": 1100,
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            "description": "‘‘‘ The following suggests: an earlier period where there was no or little Islamic presence; a middle period in which Muslims were allowed to live in the polity but had to obey several restrictions, including, seemingly, where they could live; and a late period where it seems they could worship freely. \"The first recorded contact between the Mossi and Moslems took place around 1328 when the Yatenga Mossi attacked, burned, and sacked Timbuktu, then held by the Dia dynasty of the Songhoi (Dubois 1896:251). [...] The  pagan Mossi and the Moslem Songhoi fought several other battles until Songhoi power was broken by the Moroccans, who conquered Timbuktu in 1590. \"The Moslems made no further attempt to convert the Mossi by force, but Moslem pressure did not stop; it now came in the peaceful guise of Moslem merchants and Yarsé Moslem refugees from the Mandingo cities such as Timbuktu and Djenne, who received permission from the Mossi rulers to settle in the country. However, judging from the reports of the first Europeans to reach the Mossi, the Moslems lived under many restrictions and were forbidden by the Moro Nabas to recite their prayers in public places (Tauxier 1912:585 586). Despite these restrictions, the Moslems were able to extend their influence through conversion of the cadet sons of the rulers and conversion of at least one ruler of the Ouagadougou Mossi dynasty. \"About 1780 Naba Kom, the son of Zombré and a Yarsé Moslem woman, permitted the Yarsé to live in the villages and sent one of them to the Gold Coast for religious instruction. His son, Naba Sagha, was involved in a civil war and replaced some dissident pagan district chiefs with his Moslem sons. The present ruling lineage of Noberé (where I worked) is descended from Ngado, one of these sons. But although the rulers permitted their younger sons to adopt Islam, they themselves and the heirs to the thrones remained pagan in order to maintain the bonds with the ancestors. The exception to this rule was Doulougou, the grandson of Sagha, who was elected Moro Naba despite being a Moslem. Now the spread of Islam was given new impetus: Yarsé proselyting increased, mosques were built in Ouagadougou and in the villages, and many Koranic schools were founded. But with Doulougou's death the rulers reverted to paganism and Moslem influence declined. Nevertheless, the learned Moslem Imams continued to serve at court and used their knowledge of the outside world for the benefit of the rulers.\" §REF§(Skinner 1958: 1105) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXVG26H7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FXVG26H7 </b></a>§REF§",
            "note": null,
            "finalized": false,
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            "tag": "SSP",
            "is_disputed": false,
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            "name": "Government restrictions on property ownership for adherents of any religious group",
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                "end_year": 1897,
                "long_name": "Mossi",
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                    "name": "West Africa",
                    "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)",
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