Gov Res Prop Own For Rel Grp List
A viewset for viewing and editing Government Restrictions on Property Ownership for Adherents of and Religious Groups.
GET /api/rt/government-restrictions-on-property-ownership-for-adherents-of-and-religious-groups/?ordering=-tag
{ "count": 296, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/government-restrictions-on-property-ownership-for-adherents-of-and-religious-groups/?ordering=-tag&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 202, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘ Based on expert advice (Alessandro Ceccarelli, 2017) that “unknown” is the most accurate code with regards to religious variables in this era.", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on property ownership for adherents of any religious group", "coded_value": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "PkCeraN", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000, "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "new_name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jarrige, Jean-François, and Jean-François Enault. 1976. “Fouilles de Pirak - Baluchistan.” Arts Asiatiques 32 (1): 29-70. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q32UJUPX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q32UJUPX</a>. §REF§ The earliest evidence for agriculture here was found in Mehrgarh and dates to 7000 BCE. By 5500, the people of Mehrgarh had begun to rely more on bovine and ovicaprine pastoralism for their meat, as opposed to hunting. Starting from around this time, there is also an increase in the number of known farming settlements in the region, most notably Kili Ghul Mohammad, Anjira, Siah Damb, and Rana Gundai. There is evidence for an increased range of craft activities and the first granaries appeared in Mehrgarh, as well as, perhaps, small-scale irrigation. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 57-61) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It is not possible to give an accurate estimate of the region's population at this time, §REF§ (Possehl 1999, 472) Possehl, Gregory L. 1999. Indus Age: The Beginnings. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWNUD7IH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWNUD7IH</a>. §REF§ and the size of occupied Mehrgarh is uncertain, as the population shifted over time and part of the site has been cut away by the Bolan River. §REF§ (Jarrige 2013, 135-154) Jarrige, J.-F. 2013. Mehrgarh Neolithic. Paris: Éditions de Boccard. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MKZA34B\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MKZA34B</a>. §REF§ Similarly, the literature does not provide many clues as to the political organization of Mehrgarh or any other site in the region during the period, although the appearance of granaries at Mehrgarh may suggest increasing social complexity. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 61) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 38, "name": "Pakistan", "subregions_list": "Pakistan", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 27, "year_from": 1672, "year_to": 1707, "description": "NB It is possible that government restrictions of this kind were law before Aurangzeb, but they are not mentioned in the literature consulted, and, generally speaking, this literature seems to imply that many of Aurangzeb's restrictions regarding religion constituted breaks with his predecessors' approach to the same area. It is also unclear, again from the literature consulted, whether Aurangzeb's successors continued any of his policies in these matters, but it seems reasonable to assume some degree of continuity. \"In 1672 Aurangzeb issued an order recalling all endowed lands given to Hindus and reserving all such future land grants for Muslims, possibly as a concession to the ulama. If strictly enforced, this move would have been a significant blow to Hindu and Jain religious communities, but historical evidence suggests otherwise. \"The new policy on land grants lacked implementation, especially in more far-flung areas of the kingdom. In parts of Bengal, for instance, Mughal officers gave more endowed land to Hindus after the 1672 order than before.\" §REF§(Truschke 2017: 82) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MQAWGCQB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MQAWGCQB </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on property ownership for adherents of any religious group", "coded_value": "present", "polity": { "id": 414, "name": "InGangN", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3001, "long_name": "Neolithic Middle Ganga", "new_name": "in_ganga_nl", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Middle Ganga corresponds to the eastern portion of the Upper Ganga Plain, in the eastern part of the north-central modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and the state of Bihar. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Neolithic (c. 7000-3001 BCE). Larger sites found in the wider Gangetic region dating from this time have yielded evidence for agricultural activities, including animal husbandry; moreover, one site (Chirand) has also yielded evidence for large-scale production of tools made of bone and antler, as well as of items of likely domestic use, indicating some degree of craft specialisation. The political organisation of such sites remain overall unclear, though one site in a neighbouring valley, Magahara, seems to have housed a relatively egalitarian community, judging from the similarity between houses and their arrangement around a likely cattle pen, suggesting communal ownership of livestock. No population estimates could be found for the Middle Ganga specifically, but the typical community in the nearby Vindhya region would likely have numbered around 200 people, and the region as a whole likely had a population of about 1,000. §REF§ (Vikrama and Chattopadhyaya 2002: 127-132) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U4F7KRKD/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U4F7KRKD/</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 263, "year_from": 1710, "year_to": 1743, "description": "NB The following quote suggests the possibility of a shift in religious policy in 1740, but the literature consulted does not confirm whether or not this was the case. “In 1740, however, the Navaiyat rule came to a halt, when Dost Ali Khan was killed in battle against the Marathas. In the power vacuum, the Nizam of Hyderabad stepped in and placed his own man on the throne of Arcot. The new Walajah dynasty was in power (at least nominally) from 1744 to 1855. Unlike the Navaiyats, however, the Walajahs also endowed Hindu temples and shrines. The need to maintain a military superiority and the need to establish princely authority by acts of religious patronage coincided in the magnificent endowments lavished on the fortresses and temples of Trichinopoly. The control with temple centres was not only necessary in order to establish princely authority but also because the temples were centres of trade and important sources of revenue for the rulers.” §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9SKWNUF4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9SKWNUF4 </b></a> §REF§ “Interestingly while the Nawab’s understood the significance of temples as social and economic institutions. However they did not reformulated the Hindu laws and customs but rather attempted to preserve the tradition as such. In the words of T.V. Mahalingam, ‘The Nawabs of the Carnatic (the members of the Walajah dynasty of Arcot), particularly Muhammad Ali Walajah and his successor Umdata’I Umara, were deeply interested in the proper maintenance of the Hindu temples. They were anxious that no harm was done to them in the course of the many wars that were waged in the Carnatic during their period. More than that, they were equally anxious that the traditional and customary modes of worship there were followed without any interruption. They considered it their duty to settle disputes, if any, that arose among groups or parties with regard to the performance of temple ritual and worship.” §REF§ (Venkataramanujam 2015, 256-257) Venkataramanujam, R. 2015. ‘Temple Administration in Tamilnadu: A Colonia Legacy.’ In Facets of Contemporary History. Edited by M. Thilakavathy and R.K. Maya. Chennai: MJP Publishers. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4XK37BHH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4XK37BHH </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on property ownership for adherents of any religious group", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 701, "name": "in_carnatic_sul", "start_year": 1710, "end_year": 1801, "long_name": "Carnatic Sultanate", "new_name": "in_carnatic_sul", "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI", "general_description": "The Carnatic Sultanate originated as a vassal state of the Mughal Empire. In 1710 CE The Navaiyat dynasty under Saadutullah Khan became the first nawab of the Carnatic. The Carnatic Sultanate had its capital at Arcot. The Carnatic nawabs practiced Sufi Islam and their court language was Persian. §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Ramaswami 1984, 329) Ramaswami, N.S. 1984. Political History of Carnatic Under the Nawabs. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PTIS9MB4/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PTIS9MB4/collection</a> §REF§ The Carnatic Sultanate contributed to the building of mosques, Hindu temples and educational centres. The nawabs benefitted heavily from trade and support with the British East India Company. §REF§ (Ramaswami 1984, 333) Ramaswami, N.S. 1984. Political History of Carnatic Under the Nawabs. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PTIS9MB4/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PTIS9MB4/collection</a> §REF§ By the turn of the nineteenth century the British East India Company took control of the entire Carnatic region. The nawabs of the Carnatic continued to survive until 1855 CE as dependents of the British rule. §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 293, "year_from": 1328, "year_to": 1360, "description": "\"This goes back a forth over the period as various French kings expel and then welcome back the Jewish community to the kingdom.\"§REF§(Susan Broomhall, 2023, pers. comm.)§REF§\r\n\r\nThe following quote evidences the lack of ability on behalf of the Jews to own property previous to royal privileges being granted. “In 1355 King John II of France granted royal privileges to Jews in order to allow them to acquire and possess houses and residences, and exempted them from special taxes. In 1361 he extended these privileges throughout his realm to attract Jewish immigration.\" §REF§Cohn, S.K. Jnr. 2007. The Black Death and the Burning of the Jews, Past & Present, Aug. 2007,\r\nNo.196, pp. 3-36. Oxford:Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/pastj/gtm005.. Pgs 26, 27. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/QMN8793A/items/RTITKPW6/collection §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": "2024-02-15T11:45:16.210037Z", "modified_date": "2024-02-15T11:45:16.210051Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Gov_res_prop_own_for_rel_grp", "coded_value": "present", "polity": { "id": 333, "name": "FrValoE", "start_year": 1328, "end_year": 1450, "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Valois", "new_name": "fr_valois_k_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The French crown passed to the Valois Dynasty in 1328 after a succession crisis within the ruling Capetian family, and the Valois reigned over the French kingdom until 1589 CE. Here we focus on the early Valois period, 1328-1450 CE, which was marked by the Hundred Years' War and the economic and human devastation caused by the Black Death. By the mid-15th century, the beginnings of a more modern bureaucracy had developed under Charles VII.<br>In this period, the territory of the Kingdom of France was considerably smaller than that of modern France. §REF§ (Knecht 2004, 2) Knecht, Robert J. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon and London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a>. §REF§ The kingdom covered 390,000 square kilometres in 1350 and 340,000 square kilometres in 1450. §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH</a>. §REF§ <br>In response to the decline in population and production during the Black Death in the mid-fourteenth century, the crown instituted harsh financial reforms and higher taxes. This led to revolts by peasants and in urban areas. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ At the same time, the Valois faced the English Plantagenet dynasty in the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453 CE). The French suffered major defeats at Bruges (1340 CE) and Agincourt (1415 CE). Historian of France W. Scott Haine notes that, “In the darkest days of this war France’s very existence seemed in question.” §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ In 1439 CE, inspired by the actions of peasant leader Joan of Arc, Charles VII of France instituted a professional standing army. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 45) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ Charles VII conquered Normandy and Aquitaine by 1453 CE, and England only maintained control over Calais.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>We have estimated the population of the French Kingdom as 12 million in 1350 CE using data from Turchin and Nefedov’s <i>Secular Cycles.</i> §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton, University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/</a> §REF§ The population declined drastically during the Black Plague in the mid-fourteenth century. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 2) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a> §REF§ An estimated one-third of population died in the plague by 1400 CE. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ In 1450 CE, the population was only 9 million. §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton, University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/</a> §REF§ <br>The king and royal lineage dominated French political society. Others were divided into estates: the clergy, the nobles, and the common people. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 8) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a> §REF§ During the time of the Valois there were 40,000 noble families in France- nobility was either inherited or bestowed by the king. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 8) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a> §REF§ Charles VII (1422-1461 CE) began the process to modernize the crown- instituting reforms to change the government from feudal to bureaucratic. This was continued by Late Valois ruler Louis XI (1461-1483 CE). §REF§ (Haine 2000, 46) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 13, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘ \" Despite their submission as dhimmis and the payment of the jizya, the Jews were not slaves or captives, and their dhimmi status did not forbid them from buying, selling or owning slaves and captives, for the dhimma said nothing about that, except if the slave was a Muslim.\" §REF§ (Ojeda-Mata 2020: 113) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HBD6T7K8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HBD6T7K8 </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on property ownership for adherents of any religious group", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "MaSaadi", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659, "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "new_name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "This polity represents the period in which Morocco was ruled by the Saadi dynasty. Although the dynasty itself was founded in 1511 CE, we date the beginning of the polity to 1554, when the Saadis took Fez from their dynastic rivals, the Wattasids, and united Morocco under their rule. As for the polity's end, it seems most appropriate to date it to 1659, the year the last Saadi monarch was assassinated. Between 1554 and 1591, the boundaries of the Saadi Sultanate coincided with those of modern-day Morocco. Between 1591 and 1618, the Saadi also ruled over the Niger Inland Delta, though their control over this area seems to have been nominal. After the death of Sultan Ahmad Al-Mansur in 1603, the polity entered a period of instability that ultimately led to the loss of their Niger colony. §REF§ (El Fasi 1992, 200-32) M. El Fasi. 1992. 'Morocco'. In <i>General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 200-32. London: Heinemann. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the 16th and 17th centuries CE, the Saadis ruled through an Ottoman-style hierarchical regime. §REF§ (García-Arenal 2009, 57-58) Mercedes García-Arenal. 2009. <i>Ahmad Al-Mansur: The Beginnings of Modern Morocco</i>. Oxford: OneWorld. §REF§ Atop this hierarchy stood the sultan, followed by the wazir or vizier, usually the crown prince. Then came the sultan's council, headed by the First Secretary, who fulfilled the roles of secretary of state, majordomo and treasurer. The vice-vizier was in charge of the army and the <i>qadi al-qudat</i> (chief religious judge) headed the judiciary and appointed regional qadis.<br>The Saadi Sultanate is likely to have had a population of no more than 3 million at its peak. This is based on the earliest available population estimate for Morocco, which dates to the 20th century. According to García-Arenal, '[t]he figure can hardly have been higher in the late sixteenth century or during the seventeenth, given that the country was subject to regular and devastating epidemics of plague'. §REF§ (García-Arenal 2009, 41) Mercedes García-Arenal. 2009. <i>Ahmad Al-Mansur: The Beginnings of Modern Morocco</i>. Oxford: OneWorld. §REF§ However, it is worth noting that this estimate does not take into account the population of the Niger Inland Delta.<br><br/><br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 26, "year_from": 1523, "year_to": 1671, "description": "NB It is possible that government restrictions of this kind were law before Aurangzeb, but they are not mentioned in the literature consulted, and, generally speaking, this literature seems to imply that many of Aurangzeb's restrictions regarding religion constituted breaks with his predecessors' approach to the same area. It is also unclear, again from the literature consulted, whether Aurangzeb's successors continued any of his policies in these matters, but it seems reasonable to assume some degree of continuity. \"In 1672 Aurangzeb issued an order recalling all endowed lands given to Hindus and reserving all such future land grants for Muslims, possibly as a concession to the ulama. If strictly enforced, this move would have been a significant blow to Hindu and Jain religious communities, but historical evidence suggests otherwise. \"The new policy on land grants lacked implementation, especially in more far-flung areas of the kingdom. In parts of Bengal, for instance, Mughal officers gave more endowed land to Hindus after the 1672 order than before.\" §REF§(Truschke 2017: 82) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MQAWGCQB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MQAWGCQB </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on property ownership for adherents of any religious group", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 414, "name": "InGangN", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3001, "long_name": "Neolithic Middle Ganga", "new_name": "in_ganga_nl", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Middle Ganga corresponds to the eastern portion of the Upper Ganga Plain, in the eastern part of the north-central modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and the state of Bihar. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Neolithic (c. 7000-3001 BCE). Larger sites found in the wider Gangetic region dating from this time have yielded evidence for agricultural activities, including animal husbandry; moreover, one site (Chirand) has also yielded evidence for large-scale production of tools made of bone and antler, as well as of items of likely domestic use, indicating some degree of craft specialisation. The political organisation of such sites remain overall unclear, though one site in a neighbouring valley, Magahara, seems to have housed a relatively egalitarian community, judging from the similarity between houses and their arrangement around a likely cattle pen, suggesting communal ownership of livestock. No population estimates could be found for the Middle Ganga specifically, but the typical community in the nearby Vindhya region would likely have numbered around 200 people, and the region as a whole likely had a population of about 1,000. §REF§ (Vikrama and Chattopadhyaya 2002: 127-132) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U4F7KRKD/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U4F7KRKD/</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 159, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘ The following quote suggests that, despite local attacks and misgivings, there were no government restrictions on Muslims owning significant property, at least. “Why was there such an emphasis on fengshui in the shrine’s public records from the Qing? The legal implications of fengshui, which was often invoked in property disputes across China, explain the reason. Ethnographic accounts reveal that non-Muslim populations in the northwest at times attacked Islamic shrines on the suspicion that they hurt the fengshui of an area. The Muslim community of Baoning may have been preempting such accusations through their engagement with Chinese cosmology. Fengshui provided a vehicle through which this Muslim community exerted a claim to land that addressed the sympathies of a wider, non-Muslim community, which saw the mountain as connected to the fortunes of the entire prefecture through the examination system and rain-making. Some locals may have been initially troubled at the prospect of the historically Daoist mountain coming under Muslim ownership. And yet, it was precisely this strategy in real estate acquisition that appears to have been essential to the Qādirīyah’s and other Sufi networks’ successes in the northwest. Existing accounting re- cords of these shrines dating from the eighteenth century through the 1940s reveal extensive landholdings near Daoist abbeys, Tibetan monasteries, and Buddhist temples.” §REF§ (Brown 2019,460) Brown, Tristan G. 2019. ‘A Mountain of Saints and Sages: Muslims in the Landscape of Popular Religion in Late Imperial China.’ T'Oung Pao. Vol 105 (3-4): 437-491. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JFZXH7PI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JFZXH7PI </b></a> §REF§“Monks and Daoists do not have ownership rights to temple properties, and they cannot buy and sell temple properties at will … The monks only had the right to dispose of part of the temple property during the period of presiding over the temple, and once they are secularised or left, their right to dispose was lost … on the creation of the temple, the Kangxi emperor noted “the conflicts between monks and the other people for property”. In the fifty year of Kangxi Reign, he affirmed banning on the construction of the temples: “(I have) recently seen many temples erected in some provinces, and the construction of temples are occupying the other people's fields and huts … the governors and local officials should note that except the existed temples, the construction of additional temples is forever prohibited.\" In the fifth year of Qianlong’s reign, Qianlong promulgated the \"Great Qing Legal Code\" on the construction of the temples too: “If any folk people wants to build a temple or a shrine, they should propose it to the governor with details, and can only build the temple or shrine if it was approved. Lacking the approval, the unauthorised construction will be treated as against the law.\" As we see, the construction of private temples was largely restricted by the official …” （僧道对寺观产业不具有所有权，他们不能随意买卖寺观产业。…僧人只有在主持寺观庙宇期间才具有庙观产业的部分处置权，而其一旦还俗或离开，其处置权也就随即告失。…关于寺观的创建，康熙皇帝曾针对“僧道与民争产”的问题，于康熙五十年申明了创建寺庙之禁:“近见直隶各省创建庙宇者甚多，建造寺庙则占据百姓田庐……著各省督抚及地方官除原有寺庙外，其创建增造，永行禁止。”乾隆五年颁布的《钦定大清律例》中对庙观创建的程序也予以了规定:“民间有愿创造寺观神祠者，呈明该督抚具题，奉旨方许营建。若不俊题请，擅行兴造者，依违制律论。”可见，民间庙宇的创建在官方宏观控制中受到了种种限制。）” §REF§ (Wu, Xin, 2006, No.7 ) Wu, Xin. 2006. The State and Society in Temple Property Disputes in the Qing Dynasty. Chinese Social History Review. Tianjin: Tianjin Ancient Works Publishing House. Seshat URL: §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on property ownership for adherents of any religious group", "coded_value": "present", "polity": { "id": 2, "name": "CnQingL", "start_year": 1796, "end_year": 1912, "long_name": "Late Qing", "new_name": "cn_qing_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ <br>The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.<br>We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. <i>The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.<br>From 1850 to 1864 CE, China was racked by the fourteen-year Taiping Rebellion. The rebellion directly caused 30 million deaths and destroyed many regions in the middle and lower Yangtze. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 198) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In 1853, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace established a capital in Nanjing, but the rebellion was defeated by armies led by local governors in 1864. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A number of serious uprisings followed the Taiping Rebellion, including the Nian Rebellion (1853-1868 CE). §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>At the same time, the Qing emperors were facing economic problems due to the actions of foreign powers. In the 1830s, British merchants began illegally importing opium to China, where high demand for the drug led to a large trade imbalance. China's economy was drained of silver §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 157) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and the value of copper coins depreciated. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The First Opium War broke out in 1839 CE when a Chinese commissioner attempted to block opium trade in Guangzhou harbour. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The Second Opium War of 1858 CE was a series of military actions by the British and French against the Qing. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The resulting treaties allowed foreign powers to establish concessions in China, abolished taxes for French and British merchants, and forced the Qing to pay large amounts of silver in damages. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The 19th century saw increasingly frequent intrusions by foreign powers. Foreign merchants exploited their tax-free status, to the detriment of local Chinese producers. China was forced to cede much of its territory in Vietnam, Burma and elsewhere. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ By the end of the 19th century, a range of foreign powers including Great Britain, Japan, Germany, and France claimed colonial territories in China. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A peasant uprising known as the Boxer Rebellion targeted foreigners in 1900 CE.<br>In 1860, the Qing rulers were exiled outside the Great Wall when foreign invaders burned down the Summer Palace. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The court was restored by the regent Empress Dowager Cixi and Prince Gong in what is known as the Tongzhi restoration. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ However, the dynasty was finally overthrown in the Revolution of 1911 and the Republic of China was founded.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Late Qing maintained a traditional imperial-style Chinese government headed by an emperor and central bureaucracy. Provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, county magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. <i>The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility</i>. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§ The Qing were deeply opposed to modernization: the scholars Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao had to flee after attempting to reform government practices in 1898 CE. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Rebellions in the 19th century led to the rise of local governors and military commanders, who acted as warlords to control their local regions. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>The period between the mid-18th and mid-19th centuries was one of extremely rapid population growth in Late Qing China, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ However, a number of censuses after that date could not be completed due to the rebellions.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:41:02.301719Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 160, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘ “There are 91 halls in Wanping, Zhuozhou, Fangshan, Bazhou, Luanzhou, Magzhou, Handan, Cheng'an, Feixiang, Qinghe, Changyuan, Dingzhou, and Yizhou in the province. In accordance with the Ministry's proposal, if they are in the high and dry areas of cities and towns, they should be converted into righteous warehouses, schools and schools; if they were originally ancient temples, they should remain as monasteries if they are currently occupied by monks. The plaques of the Three Religion Halls will all be replaced. If it is a secluded village, two or three sporadic houses, no one to manage, that is, to demolish. The ministry will be consulted upon completion of the project. The old statues should be moved to the righteous schools and colleges in the province, as suggested by the Ministry. If there are many statues left, please provide a room in a clean public place and forbid them from entering or leaving during normal times, so that teachers and students will not sit or stand in a crowded place to avoid profanity. (直隶通省在宛平、涿州、房山、霸州、滦州、磁州、邯郸、成安、肥乡、清河、长垣、 定州、易州等处大小三教堂，共有 91 处。处置的方案: 或改作书院义学，或改僧寺道院、文昌祠庙臣酌照部议，如系城镇高燥之区，改作义仓、书院、义学；如原系古刹寺院，现有僧道住持者，仍 为寺院。将三教堂匾额悉行另换。如系旷僻村坊，二三间零星房宇，无人管理者，即令拆毁。分别公地、民地，召垦给主，事竣备行咨部。其旧存遗像，照部议于通省义学、书院，分移安奉。若遗像数多，请于洁净公所，备供一室，平时禁止出入，毋令师生人等坐立挤沓，以远亵慢。) ” §REF§(Cao, Xinyu, 2019, No.3 ) Cao, Xinyu. 2019. The Qing History Journal. Beijing: The Institute of Qing History. Seshat URL: §REF§ “Monks and Daoists do not have ownership rights to temple properties, and they cannot buy and sell temple properties at will … The monks only had the right to dispose of part of the temple property during the period of presiding over the temple, and once they are secularised or left, their right to dispose was lost … on the creation of the temple, the Kangxi emperor noted “the conflicts between monks and the other people for property”. In the fifty year of Kangxi Reign, he affirmed banning on the construction of the temples: “(I have) recently seen many temples erected in some provinces, and the construction of temples are occupying the other people's fields and huts … the governors and local officials should note that except the existed temples, the construction of additional temples is forever prohibited.\" In the fifth year of Qianlong’s reign, Qianlong promulgated the \"Great Qing Legal Code\" on the construction of the temples too: “If any folk people wants to build a temple or a shrine, they should propose it to the governor with details, and can only build the temple or shrine if it was approved. Lacking the approval, the unauthorised construction will be treated as against the law.\" As we see, the construction of private temples was largely restricted by the official …” （僧道对寺观产业不具有所有权，他们不能随意买卖寺观产业。…僧人只有在主持寺观庙宇期间才具有庙观产业的部分处置权，而其一旦还俗或离开，其处置权也就随即告失。…关于寺观的创建，康熙皇帝曾针对“僧道与民争产”的问题，于康熙五十年申明了创建寺庙之禁:“近见直隶各省创建庙宇者甚多，建造寺庙则占据百姓田庐……著各省督抚及地方官除原有寺庙外，其创建增造，永行禁止。”乾隆五年颁布的《钦定大清律例》中对庙观创建的程序也予以了规定:“民间有愿创造寺观神祠者，呈明该督抚具题，奉旨方许营建。若不俊题请，擅行兴造者，依违制律论。”可见，民间庙宇的创建在官方宏观控制中受到了种种限制。）” §REF§ (Wu, Xin, 2006, No.7 ) Wu, Xin. 2006. The State and Society in Temple Property Disputes in the Qing Dynasty. Chinese Social History Review. Tianjin: Tianjin Ancient Works Publishing House. Seshat URL: §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on property ownership for adherents of any religious group", "coded_value": "present", "polity": { "id": 1, "name": "CnQingE", "start_year": 1644, "end_year": 1796, "long_name": "Early Qing", "new_name": "cn_qing_dyn_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ <br>The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History</i>. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.<br>We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. <i>The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Qing ruled over an expansive empire, and its bureaucracy was more efficient than that of previous periods. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Qing rulers adopted the Chinese bureaucratic system first used in the Han and Tang Dynasties. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Dynasty Government, Administration and Law'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-admin.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Before conquering the Ming, the Qing managed its population through a system of hereditary military organizations called the Eight Banners. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 39) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ These became part of the administrative structure of the Qing Dynasty and were only open to those of Manchu descent. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 39) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ In the later Qing period, however, the Eight Banners lost some of their political functions and served to enhance the prestige of the top Qing nobility. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 40) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. <i>The Manchu Way</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ <br>The central government was headed by the emperor and included a 'Grand Council', created by the Yongzheng emperor and expanded by the Qianlong emperor. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 173) Peter Lorge. 2005. <i>War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ The Grand Council ruled over the central ministries and provided a way for the emperor to circumvent the official bureaucracy for many decisions. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 173) Peter Lorge. 2005. <i>War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>The Qing provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, country magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. <i>The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility</i>. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§ In the early Qing years, provinces were ruled by high ranking officials who were typically of Manchu descent. §REF§ (Hsu 2006, 415) Cho-yun Hsu. 2006. <i>China: A New Cultural History</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. §REF§ <br>The territory of the Qing empire was more than double that of the Ming. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Tibetans, Uighurs, Muslims, a number of Mongol groups, Burmese, Thais, and indigenous Taiwanese were incorporated into the Chinese empire. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>Three Qing emperors - Kangxi (1662-1722 CE), Yongzheng (1723-1735 CE), and Qianlong (1736-1795 CE) - are historically known as great rulers. During their reigns, China was extremely prosperous. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Qianlong is famous for leading ten military expeditions, including campaigns in Taiwan, Burma, Vietnam and Nepal. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. <i>Chinaknowledge.de</i>. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ <br>Based on Chinese census and registration counts, the population of China in 1749 CE was about 177.5 million. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ The following century was one of extremely rapid population growth, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. <i>China's Changing Population</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ Historian James Z. Gao writes that the area within the Qing court's 'sphere of influence' at its peak was 13.1 million square kilometres'. §REF§ (Gao 2009, xxxvi) James Z. Gao. 2009. <i>Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800-1949)</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ <br>While the Qing period is not well known for poetry, painting and porcelain as previous periods are, print journalism, theatre and novels flourished under the Qing emperors. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 2) William T. Rowe. 2009. <i>China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:40:34.789180Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 287, "year_from": 1021, "year_to": 1171, "description": "‘‘‘ “Christians made up several firmly established communities in Jerusalem, owned significant property, administered dozens of churches and monasteries […]” §REF§ (Talmon-Heller and Frenkel 2019, 205) Talmon-Heller, Daniella, and Frenkel, Miriam. 2019. Religious Innovation under Fatimid Rule: Jewish and Muslim Rites in Eleventh-Century Jerusalem. Medieval Encounters.Vol.25. Pp. 203-226. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SMFK29H5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SMFK29H5 </b></a>§REF§ “The most controversial of all Fatimid rulers has always been the enigmatic al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh (996‒1021), who is notorious for his persecution of Jews and Christians, for the destruction of their houses of worship culminating in the demolition of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, but also for unrelated measures such as the ban on the consumption of wine and notably, his sometimes violently enforced restrictions on the free movement of women.” §REF§ (den Heijer, Lev, and Swanson 2015, 326) den Heijer, Johannes, Lev, Yaacov, and Swanson, Mark. 2015. The Fatimid Empire and its Population. Medieval Encounters. Vol. 21. Pp. 323-344. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HDSM663W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HDSM663W </b></a>§REF§ “[…] towards the end of al-Ḥākim’s reign, of synagogues, churches, and monasteries, as well as the remarkable fact that Jews and Christians who had been compelled to convert during the persecutions were allowed to revert to their original religions. After his mysterious disappearance in the Muqaṭṭam hills, his successor, al-Ẓāhir (1021‒1036), continued this more tolerant policy.” §REF§ (den Heijer, Lev, and Swanson 2015, 326) den Heijer, Johannes, Lev, Yaacov, and Swanson, Mark. 2015. The Fatimid Empire and its Population. Medieval Encounters. Vol. 21. Pp. 323-344. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HDSM663W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HDSM663W </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on property ownership for adherents of any religious group", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "TnFatim", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171, "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "new_name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Fatimid Caliphate lasted from 909 to 1171 CE. After a failed uprising against the Sunni Abbasids in Syria, the head of the Ismaili Shi'a religious movement - who claimed descent from Muhammad's daughter Fatimah by way of her descendent Ismail - fled to Tunisia. There, with the help of local Berber warriors, he 'seized Ifriqiya - modern Tunisia and Eastern Algeria - took over the trans-Saharan gold-and-slave trade, built two great capitals - first Kairouan, then nearby Mahdiyya - and set up an autonomous state far from the reach of Baghdad'. §REF§ (Man 1999, 74) John Man. 1999. <i>Atlas of the Year 1000</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ From there, the Fatimids conquered much of North Africa, extending their rule into Egypt. The effective end of the Fatimid Caliphate occurred at the end of the 11th century (though the Caliphate remained nominally intact for nearly another century). At this time, a series of Fatimid viziers increased their control of the military and, ruling from their own palaces, turned the imam-caliph into a nominal figurehead. §REF§ (Walker 2006, 88) Paul E. Walker. 2006. 'The Relationship Between Chief Qadi and Chief Da'i under the Fatimids', in <i>Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies</i>, edited by Gudrun Kramer and Sabine Schmidtke, 70-94. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Over many years in the final century, the Fatimid state experienced a long decline marked by incompetent viziers. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 73) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Although relatively little is known about the Fatimid bureaucracy during the early period (909-969 CE), we can say that it did not have a vizier. §REF§ (Walker 2011, 104) Paul E. Walker. 2011. 'Responsibilities of Political Office in a Shi'i Caliphate and the Delineation of Public Duties under the Fatimids', in <i>Islam, the State, and Political Authority: Medieval Issues and Modern Concerns</i>, edited by A. Afsaruddin, 93-110. London: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In Tunisia, the Fatimids used slave eunuchs to command army and naval forces, and, following the precedent of previous Islamic governments, founded cities as administrative and military centres and seats for their courts. §REF§ (Yaacov 1991, 4) Yaacov Lev. 1991. <i>State and Society in Fatimid Egypt</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. §REF§ Suggesting the presence of a highly capable full-time bureaucracy, one of their purpose-built cities, the second capital Mansuriyya (948-975 CE), was supplied with fresh water from a distant spring via an aqueduct 'modelled on the Roman system at Carthage'. §REF§ (Qutbuddin 2011, 39) Tahera Qutbuddin. 2011. 'Fatimids', in <i>Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia, Volume 2: Africa</i>, edited by Edward Ramsamy, 37-40. Los Angeles: Sage. §REF§ <br>In 969 CE, the Fatimids conquered Egypt under a military general called Jawhar. This brought the total land area under Fatimid control to 2.4 million square kilometres, §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 10) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and the new capital city, al-Qahira (Cairo), was founded in 975 and remained the capital under the fall of the dynasty in 1171. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 241) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In Egypt the vizier, a staple of Islamic Egyptian government, was introduced to Fatimid professional administration, which may suggest that the Fatimids retained much of the lower administration present during the Ikshidid Period as well. Heads of administration are known for the military, treasury, religion, missionary activities, and the judiciary. §REF§ (Hamblin 2004) William J. Hamblin. 2013. 'Egypt: Fatimids, Later (1073-1171): Army and Administration', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ Before 1073 CE, the vizier was a slave who did not have military powers. Between 1073 and 1121, he became the military chief and effectively replaced the iman-caliph as head of government. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 243) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The imam-caliph retreated into a palace that contained a harem run by a 'hierarchical corps of eunuchs'. §REF§ (Hamblin 2004) William J. Hamblin. 2013. 'Egypt: Fatimids, Later (1073-1171): Army and Administration', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>Provinces were ruled through vassals. After the foundation of Cairo, North Africa was 'abandoned' to the Zirid (972-1148 CE) and Hammadid (1015-1152 CE) Dynasties. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 242) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Within Egypt, two cities enjoyed a measure of self-rule: Fustat was governed by a <i>wali</i> (governor) §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 65) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and Alexandria also had its own budget and chief judge. §REF§ (Sanders 1998, 167) Paula A. Sanders. 1998. 'The Fatimid State, 969-1171', in <i>The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1: Islamic Egypt, 640-1517</i>, edited by Carl F. Petry, 151-74. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The rest of Egypt was divided into seven districts, §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 108) James E. Lindsay. 2005. <i>Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§ which may have been commanded by <i>amirs</i> (military governors). Towns with markets would have a <i>muhtasib</i>, who oversaw shopkeepers' and artisans' activities and ensured that religious law was correctly observed. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 65) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The Fatimids repaired and improved dams and canals §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 16) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and Egypt grew exceptionally prosperous under their rule, especially before the mid-10th century. Al-Qahira had eight public baths, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 54) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ a caravanserai (<i>funduq</i>) for foreign merchants, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 41) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and possibly the most famous market in the Islamic world at the time, called the Market of the Lamps (Suq al-Qanadil). §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 42) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The 10th-century geographer al-Muqaddasi described Suq al-Qanadil as 'the marketplace for all mankind ... It is the storehouse of the Occident, the entrepot of the Orient.' §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 106) James E. Lindsay. 2005. <i>Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§ Another contemporary traveller, Nasir-i Khusraw, reported that in Cairo the shops were 'all the sultan's property' and leased to the shop owners, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 54) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ underscoring the power of the caliphs and their dedication to public works.<br>The population of the Fatimid Caliphate peaked at about 12-13 million in 1000 CE, but subsequently declined as territory was lost to about 4 million in 1100 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 219-29, 141-47) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ By the end of the 10th century, the population of the caliphate was roughly equivalent to that of Egypt. The city of Fustat, close to Cairo, had approximately 120,000 residents, even after the fire of 1168, and multiple sources report multi-storey residential homes with up to seven levels. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 62, 65, 78) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 65, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "‘‘‘ \"[T]he confiscation of property and estates belonging to convicted heretics and sodomites (like those of persons convicted of lèse-majesté ) was a matter for the king, but in the case of heretics and sodomites at the discretion of the spiritual arm (the pope? the Inquisition?): a bewildering tangle indeed. [...] Although, as we saw, confiscated estates legally belonged to the king, they were de facto administered and usufructed by the Inquisitors. [...] Subject to confiscation was not only property which the accused had at the time of his arrest but all he possessed from the date on which he began practicing heresy (which could be decades before the arrest). [...] The product of confiscation must have run into dizzy figures. Of the some 18,000 people put on trial by the Inquisition at Lisbon between 1540 and 1760, the great majority were bourgeois. The intense persecution of New Christians that took place between 1660 and 1685 (even though the Inquisition lay dormant from 1674-1682) netted 2,402 victims in Évora (55 executed), 1,621 in Coimbra (77 executed) and 871 in Lisbon (18 executed), a grand total of 4,894 victims (150 executed). During 1672-1674 the Inquisition of Lisbon fairly decimated the merchant-bankers.\" §REF§(Saraiva 2001: 183-186) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DEBKFQ7H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DEBKFQ7H </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on property ownership for adherents of any religious group", "coded_value": "present", "polity": { "id": 709, "name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1806, "long_name": "Portuguese Empire - Early Modern", "new_name": "pt_portuguese_emp_2", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": "2023-10-25T13:59:24.938475Z", "modified_date": "2023-10-25T13:59:24.938487Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }