Gov Res Prop Own For Rel Grp List
A viewset for viewing and editing Government Restrictions on Property Ownership for Adherents of and Religious Groups.
GET /api/rt/government-restrictions-on-property-ownership-for-adherents-of-and-religious-groups/?ordering=name
{ "count": 296, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/rt/government-restrictions-on-property-ownership-for-adherents-of-and-religious-groups/?ordering=name&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 297, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Residential segregation for Jews. \"Jews resided in the Empire's capital since the fifth century and, despite fragmentary evidence, appear to have continuously lived there up to the Fourth Crusade. At an unknown date before the eleventh century, the imperial authorities began to enforce upon them a policy of residential segregation motivated by religious considerations. About 1044 they tightened this policy by removing the Jews from their quarter, located within the city walk, to the suburb of Galata or Pera across the Golden Horn, where they still resided at the time of Benjamin of Tudela's visit.\"§REF§(Jacoby 1998: 31) Jacoby, D. 1998. The Jewish Community of Constantinople from the Komnenan to the Palaiologan Period. Vizantijskij Vremennik 55/2 (80): 31-40. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2C44JSTM/library§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": "2024-03-18T09:38:30.522370Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-18T09:38:30.522386Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Gov_res_prop_own_for_rel_grp", "coded_value": "present", "polity": { "id": 76, "name": "TrByzM3", "start_year": 1073, "end_year": 1204, "long_name": "Byzantine Empire III", "new_name": "tr_byzantine_emp_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Byzantine period (1073-1204 CE) began with Michael VII Ducas (r.1071-1078 CE §REF§ (Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) H W Haussig. J M Hussey, trans. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ and ended in disintegration with court in-fighting over the regency agenda for Manuel's heir Alexios II §REF§ (Holmes 2008, 276) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ , which preceded the devastating 1204 CE conquest of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade. §REF§ (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences §REF§ The state had controlled about 500,000 km2 territory and upwards of 6 million people.<br>In ideology the Byzantine Empire carried the Roman worldview of its rightful domain of influence. Byzantine Emperors \"recognized neither the western Frankish Empire nor the Bulgarian Emperor\" and \"never gave up its claims to universal rule. It claimed to be at the apex of the family of kings; it was the father, they were the sons.\" §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 201) H W Haussig. J M Hussey, trans. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The reality was that, although the state could maintain a professional army of over 100,000 soldiers, §REF§ (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) §REF§ increasingly the Byzantine state was dependent on allies for the the projection of military power. \"Emperors from the time of Basil II found it cheaper to call upon allies and dependents, such as Venice, to supply warships, than to pay for an expensive standing fleet at Constantinople.\" §REF§ (Haldon 2008, 560) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>Nevertheless the Byzantine government was, in terms of sophistication, with its legion of professional officials employed on state salary, a cut-above that which was present in the western states of the middle ages. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 54) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) §REF§ The Emperor headed a complex imperial government that was led by a Mesazon (Prime minister) who had secretaries and an official called Master of Petitions who took feedback from the people. Provinces were governed by doukes (provincial governors) who had provincial administrations staffed with multiple levels of fiscal administrators. §REF§ (Haldon 2008, 550) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 293, "year_from": 1328, "year_to": 1360, "description": "\"This goes back a forth over the period as various French kings expel and then welcome back the Jewish community to the kingdom.\"§REF§(Susan Broomhall, 2023, pers. comm.)§REF§\r\n\r\nThe following quote evidences the lack of ability on behalf of the Jews to own property previous to royal privileges being granted. “In 1355 King John II of France granted royal privileges to Jews in order to allow them to acquire and possess houses and residences, and exempted them from special taxes. In 1361 he extended these privileges throughout his realm to attract Jewish immigration.\" §REF§Cohn, S.K. Jnr. 2007. The Black Death and the Burning of the Jews, Past & Present, Aug. 2007,\r\nNo.196, pp. 3-36. Oxford:Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/pastj/gtm005.. Pgs 26, 27. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/QMN8793A/items/RTITKPW6/collection §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": "2024-02-15T11:45:16.210037Z", "modified_date": "2024-02-15T11:45:16.210051Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Gov_res_prop_own_for_rel_grp", "coded_value": "present", "polity": { "id": 333, "name": "FrValoE", "start_year": 1328, "end_year": 1450, "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Valois", "new_name": "fr_valois_k_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The French crown passed to the Valois Dynasty in 1328 after a succession crisis within the ruling Capetian family, and the Valois reigned over the French kingdom until 1589 CE. Here we focus on the early Valois period, 1328-1450 CE, which was marked by the Hundred Years' War and the economic and human devastation caused by the Black Death. By the mid-15th century, the beginnings of a more modern bureaucracy had developed under Charles VII.<br>In this period, the territory of the Kingdom of France was considerably smaller than that of modern France. §REF§ (Knecht 2004, 2) Knecht, Robert J. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon and London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a>. §REF§ The kingdom covered 390,000 square kilometres in 1350 and 340,000 square kilometres in 1450. §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH</a>. §REF§ <br>In response to the decline in population and production during the Black Death in the mid-fourteenth century, the crown instituted harsh financial reforms and higher taxes. This led to revolts by peasants and in urban areas. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ At the same time, the Valois faced the English Plantagenet dynasty in the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453 CE). The French suffered major defeats at Bruges (1340 CE) and Agincourt (1415 CE). Historian of France W. Scott Haine notes that, “In the darkest days of this war France’s very existence seemed in question.” §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ In 1439 CE, inspired by the actions of peasant leader Joan of Arc, Charles VII of France instituted a professional standing army. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 45) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ Charles VII conquered Normandy and Aquitaine by 1453 CE, and England only maintained control over Calais.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>We have estimated the population of the French Kingdom as 12 million in 1350 CE using data from Turchin and Nefedov’s <i>Secular Cycles.</i> §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton, University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/</a> §REF§ The population declined drastically during the Black Plague in the mid-fourteenth century. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 2) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a> §REF§ An estimated one-third of population died in the plague by 1400 CE. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ In 1450 CE, the population was only 9 million. §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton, University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/</a> §REF§ <br>The king and royal lineage dominated French political society. Others were divided into estates: the clergy, the nobles, and the common people. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 8) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a> §REF§ During the time of the Valois there were 40,000 noble families in France- nobility was either inherited or bestowed by the king. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 8) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a> §REF§ Charles VII (1422-1461 CE) began the process to modernize the crown- instituting reforms to change the government from feudal to bureaucratic. This was continued by Late Valois ruler Louis XI (1461-1483 CE). §REF§ (Haine 2000, 46) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 294, "year_from": 1361, "year_to": 1450, "description": "\"This goes back a forth over the period as various French kings expel and then welcome back the Jewish community to the kingdom.\"§REF§(Susan Broomhall, 2023, pers. comm.)§REF§\r\n\r\nThe following quote evidences the lack of ability on behalf of the Jews to own property previous to royal privileges being granted. “In 1355 King John II of France granted royal privileges to Jews in order to allow them to acquire and possess houses and residences, and exempted them from special taxes. In 1361 he extended these privileges throughout his realm to attract Jewish immigration.\" §REF§Cohn, S.K. Jnr. 2007. The Black Death and the Burning of the Jews, Past & Present, Aug. 2007,\r\nNo.196, pp. 3-36. Oxford:Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/pastj/gtm005.. Pgs 26, 27. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/QMN8793A/items/RTITKPW6/collection §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": "2024-02-15T11:45:49.037848Z", "modified_date": "2024-02-15T11:45:49.037862Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Gov_res_prop_own_for_rel_grp", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 333, "name": "FrValoE", "start_year": 1328, "end_year": 1450, "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Valois", "new_name": "fr_valois_k_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The French crown passed to the Valois Dynasty in 1328 after a succession crisis within the ruling Capetian family, and the Valois reigned over the French kingdom until 1589 CE. Here we focus on the early Valois period, 1328-1450 CE, which was marked by the Hundred Years' War and the economic and human devastation caused by the Black Death. By the mid-15th century, the beginnings of a more modern bureaucracy had developed under Charles VII.<br>In this period, the territory of the Kingdom of France was considerably smaller than that of modern France. §REF§ (Knecht 2004, 2) Knecht, Robert J. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon and London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a>. §REF§ The kingdom covered 390,000 square kilometres in 1350 and 340,000 square kilometres in 1450. §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH</a>. §REF§ <br>In response to the decline in population and production during the Black Death in the mid-fourteenth century, the crown instituted harsh financial reforms and higher taxes. This led to revolts by peasants and in urban areas. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ At the same time, the Valois faced the English Plantagenet dynasty in the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453 CE). The French suffered major defeats at Bruges (1340 CE) and Agincourt (1415 CE). Historian of France W. Scott Haine notes that, “In the darkest days of this war France’s very existence seemed in question.” §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ In 1439 CE, inspired by the actions of peasant leader Joan of Arc, Charles VII of France instituted a professional standing army. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 45) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ Charles VII conquered Normandy and Aquitaine by 1453 CE, and England only maintained control over Calais.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>We have estimated the population of the French Kingdom as 12 million in 1350 CE using data from Turchin and Nefedov’s <i>Secular Cycles.</i> §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton, University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/</a> §REF§ The population declined drastically during the Black Plague in the mid-fourteenth century. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 2) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a> §REF§ An estimated one-third of population died in the plague by 1400 CE. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ In 1450 CE, the population was only 9 million. §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton, University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/</a> §REF§ <br>The king and royal lineage dominated French political society. Others were divided into estates: the clergy, the nobles, and the common people. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 8) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a> §REF§ During the time of the Valois there were 40,000 noble families in France- nobility was either inherited or bestowed by the king. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 8) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI</a> §REF§ Charles VII (1422-1461 CE) began the process to modernize the crown- instituting reforms to change the government from feudal to bureaucratic. This was continued by Late Valois ruler Louis XI (1461-1483 CE). §REF§ (Haine 2000, 46) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7</a> §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 296, "year_from": 750, "year_to": 866, "description": "Though the Ecloga itself can tell us nothing about how non-Orthodox were viewed in Byzantine law, that is not the case with an appendix to the lawbook composed sometime after the promulgation of the Ecloga in 741. This appendix, known in the scholarly literature as the Appendix Eclogae, is of murky provenance, with one recent author provocatively suggesting this law text was in fact an imperial initiative undertaken to fill gaps left by the Ecloga. These thematic gaps included, inter alia, the legal status for non-Orthodox, and in fact various legal restrictions are listed for this group in Title 3 of the Appendix Eclogae. Indeed, the title suggests that by the time of its compilation, that is probably from the middle of the eighth century, all of the empire’s subjects coule be broadly divided into Orthodox and non-Orthodox. This dichotomy between Orthodox and non-Orthodox would become a defining characteristic of Byzantine law: the latter could be Jews, heretics, or pagans, but as non-Orthodox they were subjected to greater or lesser curtailments in various spheres, including holding public office, serving in the army, celebrating religious services, acting as witnesses, inheriting, and marrying.”§REF§(Chitwood 2020, 172) Chitwood, Z. 2020. Muslims and Non-Orthodox Christians in Byzantine Law until ca. 1100. In E. Cavanaugh (ed) Empire and Legal Thought: Ideas and Institutions from Antiquity to Modernity pp. 167-188. Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8S7ZVM8H/library §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": "2024-03-14T10:48:34.675352Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-14T10:48:34.675365Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Gov_res_prop_own_for_rel_grp", "coded_value": "present", "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "TrByzM1", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866, "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "new_name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The first Byzantine period, which lasts from 632 CE in the reign of Heraclius (r.610-641 CE) to 866 CE at the end of the reign of Michael III (r.842-867 CE) §REF§ (Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) H W Haussig. J M Hussey, trans. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ was in many ways characterized by the Greek response to the Arab expansion. This and other developments led to a dramatic transformation of Byzantium with regard to dimension and complexity of the society. §REF§ (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences §REF§ <br>The signature change was the reform of Byzantine control of the regions with the introduction of themes introduced under Constantine IV 668-685 CE §REF§ (Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ headed by commanders called strategi. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 178) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ This was a progressive development as provinces still existed with the first themes, the last European theme (Nicopolis or Dalmatia) being set up about 900 CE. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 96-97) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ <br>Reform of the regions into themes was directly reflected with administrative reforms at the capital. At the professional imperial administration in Constantinople, taxation and military administration was 'fused' about 680 CE into a single office called 'logothete tou stratiotikou.' \"In this office, taxation and military administration were made the responsibility of one minister in the central government. The officials concerned with the muster rolls of the soldiers and with the collection of the annona were thus combined in a single functionary.\" §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 97-98) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ <br>From Justinian II (r.668-711 CE) the strategi gained powers of tax collection and each individual theme had a logothete who behaved like the logothete tou stratiotikou in Constantinople. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 98) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ \"Thus there grew up this fusion of military and civil authority which spread over the whole Empire with the introduction of the themes and undermined the control exercised by the state.\" §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 97) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ However, while control from the center was lost, the Byzantines gained the ability to more flexibly respond to external threats.<br>After the shock of losing 1 million km2 of territory by 700 CE to the expanding Islamic Caliphate the reforms eventually appear to have put the Byzantine state, and its 5 million inhabitants, on a stronger footing. While the 695-717 CE period was known for being a period of anarchy by the ninth century military success had slightly increased the land area to 520,000 km2. §REF§ (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) §REF§ Basileus Theophilus (r.829-842 CE) was able to finance a major construction spree. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 169) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-07T17:04:48.385331Z", "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 41, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 298, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“The rulers of neighbouring states at this period revived from time to time the restrictions on non-Muslims which strict Muslims regarded as linked to the commands of Islam, particularly regarding sumptuary distinctions and the construction of new churches. The first of these measures almost always fell in abeyance, while dispensations in regard to the second could be obtained by financial means. It does not seem that before the conversion of the Mongols to Islam at the start of the fourteenth century, any measures of this kind was contemplated in Rum, where its application would have been pointless or impossible according to time and place.” §REF§ (Cahen 2014, 125) Cahen, Claude. 2014. The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rum: Eleventh to Fourteenth Century. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/EREAXUVP/items/9BNJ9UCT/collection §REF§\r\n\r\nNote from expert: \"Yes, in some regions these laws were revived after 1295. There are examples of this in Iran as well as Anatolia. [...] It should be noted that these measures were taken by the provincial governor, probably without the knowledge or direction of the Ilkhan[...].\"§REF§Michael Hope, pers. comm. to R. Ainsworth, 2024§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": "2024-03-26T12:23:25.135446Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-26T12:23:25.135458Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Gov_res_prop_own_for_rel_grp", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "IrIlkhn", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339, "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "new_name": "ir_il_khanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Ilkhanate was a state that began under Mongol commander Hulegu who founded the House of Hulegu. §REF§ (Marshall 1993, 229) Robert Marshall. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. §REF§ The nearly eighty years the dynasty lasted was a time of general economic prosperity for the 5 million inhabitants of Persia. The end of the Ilkhanate came when Abu Said, who it is said \"ruled during what was described as the 'best period of the domination of the Mongols\". §REF§ (Marshall 1993, 229) Robert Marshall. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. §REF§ , died without an heir, which resulted in the Jalayirids becoming the strongest faction in the region. §REF§ (Morgan 2015, 78) David Morgan. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. §REF§ <br>The Mongol invaders assimilated to the local culture in Persia. They converted to Islam, used the local languages (Persian and Arabic), and maintained existing Persian administrative practices, the financing of which was underpinned by iqta land grants awarded to senior bureaucrats and army officers. §REF§ (Morgan 2007, 134-148) David Morgan. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ §REF§ (Amitai 2012) Reuven Amitai. 2012. Il-Khanids. Dynastic History. IranicaOnline. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history</a> §REF§ According to the Persian historian Rashid al-Din, who was chief minister to Ghazan §REF§ (Marshall 1993, 228) Robert Marshall. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. §REF§ , the Mongols assessed the vizier (chief of the bureaucracy) on his ability to extract revenue. §REF§ (Morgan 2015, 67) David Morgan. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. §REF§ Even so, previously better known in the region as barbarians bent on destruction, the Mongols rebuilt many hospitals, mosques, and observatories, and impressive mausoleums to the rulers appeared in the cities. §REF§ (Amitai 2012) Reuven Amitai. 2012. Il-Khanids. Dynastic History. IranicaOnline. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Morgan 2007, 134-148) David Morgan. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ <br>During this period, Sultaniya was a famous commercial center and after the intense building activities of Oljetu (r.1304-1316 CE) the 'great city' became the capital. As a result of the work, the circumference of the outer walls almost tripled in length, containing within new fabulous palaces, gardens, and a purpose-built quarter of a thousand houses. §REF§ (Marozzi 2004, 133-135) J Marozzi. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London. §REF§ The largest city in the Ilkhanate at this time was probably Tabriz which also \"developed into a great metropolis\". §REF§ (Morgan 2015, 69) David Morgan. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. §REF§ Tabriz had a cistern for drinking water and baths with hot water. §REF§ (Houtsma et al. 1993, 586) M Th. Houtsma. A J Wensinck. H A R Gibb. W Heffening. E Levi-Provencal. First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936. E.J. Brill. Leiden. §REF§ In 1300 CE Tabriz may have contained 100,000-200,000 inhabitants.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 295, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "\"In April 1182, still enmeshed in his battle against the Flanders-Cham pagne coalition, Philip Augustus took the most radical step against the Jews yet taken in feudal northern Europe. He announced that the Jews must leave the royal domain by the Feast of Saint John the Baptist, on June 24.\"§REF§(Chazan 2019: 65-70) Chazan, R. 2019. Medieval Jewry in Northern France. Johns Hopkins University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/jewry/titleCreatorYear/items/TRF47P7C/item-list§REF§\r\n\r\nReferring to the twelfth century: \"Closely related to taxation of the Jews was confiscation of Jewish property and wealth.\"§REF§(Chazan 2019: 170) Chazan, R. 2019. Medieval Jewry in Northern France. Johns Hopkins University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/jewry/titleCreatorYear/items/TRF47P7C/item-list§REF§\r\n\r\n\"While the growing animosity towards the Jews is most dramatically illustrated by the events of 1288 and 1290, there are additional indices of these feelings available which reflect the breadth and scope of the anti-Jewish sentiment. The most significant of these indices is the growing tendency towards exclusion of the Jews from localities or, in some cases, from important principalities. In most instances, popular desire for the removal of the Jews contributed heavily to such exclusion.\"§REF§(Chazan 2019: 182-183) Chazan, R. 2019. Medieval Jewry in Northern France. Johns Hopkins University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/jewry/titleCreatorYear/items/TRF47P7C/item-list§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": "2024-02-27T14:42:59.845968Z", "modified_date": "2024-02-27T14:59:05.987803Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Gov_res_prop_own_for_rel_grp", "coded_value": "present", "polity": { "id": 458, "name": "FrCaptL", "start_year": 1150, "end_year": 1328, "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian", "new_name": "fr_capetian_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "In the history of France the Late Capetian period (1150-1328 CE) was a character-defining period of administrative centralization and demographic expansion.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Before Philip II (r. 1180-1223 CE), government was very simple and closely linked to the king's court, which was still itinerant, moving wherever the king went.§REF§(Clark and Henneman 1995, 1317) Clark, William W., and John Bell Henneman, Jr. 1995. “Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1314-30. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK</a> §REF§ At the core of the French king's government were a few major officials with household titles (chancellor, seneschal, butler, chamberlain and constable).§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a> §REF§ From the 12th century onwards, these positions were the preserve of the aristocracy.§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a> §REF§§REF§(Pegues 1995, 1333) Pegues, Franklin J. 1995. “Parlement de Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1332-33. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HHFUSQER\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HHFUSQER</a> §REF§<br>Philip II was likewise surrounded by a group of close counsellors,§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a> §REF§ but he also laid some of the foundations of a more formal administrative system.§REF§(Spufford 2006, 67) Spufford, Peter. 2006. Power and Profit: The Merchant in Medieval Europe. London: Thames and Hudson. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N7ZCQTEW\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N7ZCQTEW</a> §REF§ More than ever, government activity was recorded in writing; registers and government records for finance and justice were placed in a dedicated archive.§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 248-49) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a> §REF§ The clergy of the Christian Church, which had long provided a pool of 'educated, literature and numerate subjects', continued to be a vital resource for the government and administration, while the Knights Templar military order advised and under Philip II controlled the treasury from the Paris Temple.§REF§(Martin 2011) Martin, Sean. 2011. The Knights Templar: The History and Myths of the Legendary Military Order. Harpenden: Pocket Essentials. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/S2RA6VRR\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/S2RA6VRR</a> §REF§§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a> §REF§ However, an indication of the increasing specialization of central government, men of lesser status, such as marshals, were increasingly often appointed to important official positions.§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a> §REF§ The first truly professional administration in Paris dates from about 1250 CE§REF§(Pegues 1995, 1333) Pegues, Franklin J. 1995. “Parlement de Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1332-33. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HHFUSQER\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HHFUSQER</a> §REF§ and included distinct departments for finance, justice, the chancery and the treasury, housed within the Royal Palace on the Île de la Cité.§REF§(Spufford 2006, 68) Spufford, P. 2006. Power and Profit: The Merchant in Medieval Europe. Thames and Hudson. London.§REF§<br>The power of the royal centre over the regions (for instance, the power of the French king to make laws binding across the whole of his territory) steadily increased during the Late Capetian period.§REF§(Pegues 1995, 1007-08) Pegues, Franklin J. 1995. “Law and Justice.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1005-11. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UH73VNTJ\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UH73VNTJ</a> §REF§ Seneschals who had previously served as the senior officials in the households of dukes, barons, and counts were generally retained but now became royal appointees.§REF§(Henneman, Jr. 1995, 1645) Henneman, Jr., John Bell. 1995. “Seneschal.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1645. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H7UJDBAS\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H7UJDBAS</a> §REF§ From the reign of Louis VIII (1223-1226 CE), apanages were carved out in peripheral regions and placed under the control of the sons of the ruler.§REF§(Suarez 1995, 97) Suarez, Pedro J. 1995. “Apanage.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 97-98. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZVMB3BUD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZVMB3BUD</a> §REF§<br>From the 11th to the 14th century CE, the French population almost quadrupled from about 4 to 15 million.§REF§(Percy, Jr. 1995, 1416) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM</a> §REF§ The population of Paris may have grown from about 25,000 people in 1200 CE to 210,000 in 1328 CE.§REF§(Percy, Jr. 1995, 1416) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 299, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-06-10T10:33:54.442115Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-13T09:39:50.416644Z", "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Gov_res_prop_own_for_rel_grp", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 16, "name": "MxAztec", "start_year": 1427, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Aztec Empire", "new_name": "mx_aztec_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Late Postclassic period, when the Aztecs or Mexica rose to power (c. 1427-1526 CE). The Aztec Empire was born from the \"Triple Alliance\" between the city-states (altepetl) of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan, who agreed to collaborate on campaign of territorial expansion and share the resulting tribute and tax payments. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 449-451) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ Within a century, the three cities came to control a significant portion of Northern Mesoamerica, the main exception being the West, which, despite some military successes on the part of the Triple Alliance early on, largely remained under the control of the Tarascans. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 125) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§ <br>As the empire grew, so did the power of Tenochtitlan, which became the de-facto administrative capital, whose ruler came to hold the title huey tlatoani (“high king”). Tenochtitlan's power was strongest over the empire's central provinces, where the Aztecs ruled through governors, judges, tax collectors and other officials that they appointed themselves. For the \"outer\" provinces, the Aztecs limited themselves to targeting major centres, where, again, they appointed their governors and administrative officials. Finally, the Aztecs secured their power over \"frontier\" provinces by guaranteeing military protection from external foes, in exchange for \"gifts\" of soldiers and prestige goods. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 455-457) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ <br>By the time of Spanish conquest in the 1520s, Tenochtitlan likely housed between 150,000 and 250,000 people, §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ perhaps even 3,000. §REF§ (De Rioja 2017: 220) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GC3T83JD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GC3T83JD</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": { "id": 70, "text": "a new_comment_text" }, "private_comment": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 33, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice. [...] Much of the evidence, then, suggests that all the diverse religious sects were freely tolerated by a prevailing world view that was ready to acknowledge a certain common validity. Yet it is unlikely that such a view could rise to the status of cultural orthodoxy without friction. Although references to religious wars and persecutions are conspicuously absent from the historical record of ancient India, this does not rule out lesser types of conflict, and some scholars believe that there is indeed evidence of localised disagreement and resentment. [...] For example, the Arthaśāstra gratuitously advises the agents of a king to help themselves, on behalf of the ruler, to the property of groups on the fringes of society who might not have powerful friends. Moreover, there are hints in scattered sources that the followers of orthodox Brahman teachers at times ganged up against Buddhist or Jain establishments that had lost their former patronage. [...] Still, hard evidence of religious persecution in these ancient times is scattered and fragmentary. In the absence of more solid evidence, the view has gained ground that pre-modern India had a cultural unity that precluded communal conflict, but we think that this picture is not sufficiently nuanced. Doniger’s perception that there was widespread persecution of non-Brahmans during the first millennium may fairly represent the situation that arose at certain times, but we cannot be at all sure how widespread the phenomenon was, or at what times it was most marked.//\"Still, we should note that, simply as a matter of practical politics, there was at least one factor that would certainly have acted to limit the ferocity of any sectarian persecutions – the absence of a clear and powerful advantage at all times for kings in identifying themselves with the Brahman interest. No clear dividing line existed, in fact, between ruling families that were of ‘genuine’ ‘Aryan’ descent, and the rest; the ruling elite presided over heterogeneous populations within which Brahmanism, as an agent of Sanskritisation and as a common cultural denominator, was slowly feeling its way towards a new role, directed towards shaping an inclusive syncretism. Thus, the Brahmanical revival could not afford to go too far. Especially, it had to be very wary of attacking the prudent preference of kings for policies that had the capacity to attract wide support among the multiple disparate groups that constituted the citizenry. The Brahmans had to make do with whatever qualified honour they could find within the frame of an eclectic culture. Such structural constraints are likely to have kept them from striking at their enemies too wantonly.”§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on property ownership for adherents of any religious group", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 390, "name": "InMagad", "start_year": 450, "end_year": 605, "long_name": "Magadha", "new_name": "in_magadha_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-19T10:29:31.079157Z", "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 66, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 29, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“Many scholars have felt impelled to emphasise the toleration of different sects and denominations evinced by Indian rulers. [...] It seems fairly clear that, traditionally in India, people readily transferred or distributed their allegiance between different sects, seeing no logical inconsistency in approaching different gods for different purposes, and that this apparently syncretic style of religious behaviour encouraged a relaxed attitude to what others did as well; evidently, too, rulers generally extended their acceptance of this practice. [...] Much of the evidence, then, suggests that all the diverse religious sects were freely tolerated by a prevailing world view that was ready to acknowledge a certain common validity. Yet it is unlikely that such a view could rise to the status of cultural orthodoxy without friction. Although references to religious wars and persecutions are conspicuously absent from the historical record of ancient India, this does not rule out lesser types of conflict, and some scholars believe that there is indeed evidence of localised disagreement and resentment. [...] For example, the Arthaśāstra gratuitously advises the agents of a king to help themselves, on behalf of the ruler, to the property of groups on the fringes of society who might not have powerful friends. Moreover, there are hints in scattered sources that the followers of orthodox Brahman teachers at times ganged up against Buddhist or Jain establishments that had lost their former patronage. [...] Still, hard evidence of religious persecution in these ancient times is scattered and fragmentary. In the absence of more solid evidence, the view has gained ground that pre-modern India had a cultural unity that precluded communal conflict, but we think that this picture is not sufficiently nuanced. Doniger’s perception that there was widespread persecution of non-Brahmans during the first millennium may fairly represent the situation that arose at certain times, but we cannot be at all sure how widespread the phenomenon was, or at what times it was most marked.//\"Still, we should note that, simply as a matter of practical politics, there was at least one factor that would certainly have acted to limit the ferocity of any sectarian persecutions – the absence of a clear and powerful advantage at all times for kings in identifying themselves with the Brahman interest. No clear dividing line existed, in fact, between ruling families that were of ‘genuine’ ‘Aryan’ descent, and the rest; the ruling elite presided over heterogeneous populations within which Brahmanism, as an agent of Sanskritisation and as a common cultural denominator, was slowly feeling its way towards a new role, directed towards shaping an inclusive syncretism. Thus, the Brahmanical revival could not afford to go too far. Especially, it had to be very wary of attacking the prudent preference of kings for policies that had the capacity to attract wide support among the multiple disparate groups that constituted the citizenry. The Brahmans had to make do with whatever qualified honour they could find within the frame of an eclectic culture. Such structural constraints are likely to have kept them from striking at their enemies too wantonly.”§REF§(Copland, Mabbett, Roy, Brittlebank and Bowles 2012: 74-77) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ATSZ6QBU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ATSZ6QBU </b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Government restrictions on property ownership for adherents of any religious group", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 417, "name": "in_kannauj_varman_dyn", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 780, "long_name": "Kannauj - Varman Dynasty", "new_name": "in_kannauj_varman_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Middle Ganga corresponds to the eastern portion of the Upper Ganga Plain, in the eastern part of the north-central modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and the state of Bihar. Between c. 650 and 780 CE, it was under the control of the Kannauj polity.<br>Like many other Indian polities between the seventh and the eleventh centuries, Kannauj was ruled by a king, who received support from a number of key ministers, and who controlled provincial territories indirectly, through a hierarchy of princes and officials (higher tier, in charge of provinces) and visayapatis (lower tier, in charge of districts). §REF§ (Mishra 1977, 137-144) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications. §REF§ <br>While no information on the polity's total population could be found, the imperial capital of Kannauj is thought to have had a population of 120,000 people at its peak in 620 CE. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn: pers. comm. 2011) §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-10T12:41:56.821133Z", "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 56, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 251, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "“It is extremely difficult to ascertain the precise nature of Mexica society prior to their sudden rise to imperial power in 1428, despite numerous descriptions in the chronicles and codices. In some instances, later chronicles unconvincingly projected back in time the political and social structure of the imperial age. In other cases, codices and histories portray the early Mexica with an almost Rousseauian nostalgia, describing them as a rustic group with a totally egalitarian social and political structure. Again, the inconsistencies may be partly the result of the Mexica imperial elite’s later rewriting of history. Yet much of the contradictory nature of the evidence on the early Mexica is due to the dynamic nature of their development; Mexica political and social institutions were probably undergoing continuous change in response to their varying fortunes and their rapid cultural evolution. Specific characterizations would only apply to a particular moment in time. However, given the near-absence of relevant archaeological data, the chronology of Mexica evolution can only be assumed on a very general level. The situation is exacerbated by accounts which confuse the features of earlier and later institutions and by fifteenth- century state propagandists’ attempts to create historical precedents or allegorical justifications for the new imperial order.” §REF§ (Conrad 1984, 23) Conrad, Geoffrey. 1984. Religion and empire: the dynamics of Aztec and Inca expansionism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BGTJ339C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BGTJ339C </b></a> §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-13T10:00:46.403560Z", "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Government restrictions on property ownership for adherents of any religious group", "coded_value": "absent", "polity": { "id": 15, "name": "MxPostM", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1426, "long_name": "Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico", "new_name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_10", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Middle Postclassic (c. 1200-1426 CE). By this time, Tula no longer held sway over the region, and had been replaced by several city-states (altepetl). Documents written much later record the dynastic histories and conflicts between these city-states; toward the very end of this period, they came to form growing confederations, paving the way for the Aztec empire. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 123-124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§ Major centres such as Azcapotzalco, Texcoco, or Cholula likely had between 20,000 and 30,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ Each altepetl was ruled by a king (tlatoani) and a council of nobles. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 449) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": { "id": 88, "text": "a new_comment_text" }, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }