Military Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Military Levels.
GET /api/sc/military-levels/?ordering=private_comment
{ "count": 364, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/military-levels/?ordering=private_comment&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 6, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels.<br>Central (Capital Army or Inner army of 100,000) and provincial armies<br>\"The military was constituted from a Capital Army that was garrisoned in and around the capital, the armies of the princedoms and imperial clansmen, and private armies (buqu) of the magnates that were scattered throughout the empire and often represented a challenge for the central government in cases of rebellion.\" §REF§(Theobald, U. 2015. CHINAKNOWLEDGE - a universal guide for China studies. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-admin.html</a>)§REF§<br>\"The basic organizational structure of the Jin military was inherited from Wei. There were two major components: an \"inner\" army of some one hundred thousand based at the capital city of Luoyang, and a much larger \"outer\" army made up of garrisons stationed in the provinces. The inner army was under the direct control of the imperial court and included both a palace guard and a powerful mobile striking force, while the outer units were subordinate to regional military commanders (dudu) appointed by the court. In addition to these forces, there were also local troop raised by the various provincial governors (cishi).\" However, local troops were abolished in an edict in 282 CE and with that change provincial governors lost authority over military forces, although there were some exceptions on the frontier.§REF§(Graff 2002, 43)§REF§<br>Princes were made dudu and they commanded private armies and outer armies<br>\"Another Jin policy was to place substantial military power in the hands of princes of the imperial palace. The Jin founder, Sima Yan ... granted territorial fiefs to members of his own large and highly ramified lineage. Twenty-seven princes were enfeoffed soon after the founding of the dynasty in 265... most of the princes received commanderies as their fiefs ... In 277 the princes were allowed to raise their own armies, ranging in size from 1500 men for the smallest princely fief to 5000 for the largest. They were very far from being independent rulers, however. The central government in Luoyang appointed their chief ministers, and the princes had to turn two-thirds of their tax revenues over to the center. The real power of the princes ... lay in their appointments as regional military commanders. By 290 six of the princes were serving as dudu. They held more than half of the regional commands in the empire, and these included the most important provincial centers...\"§REF§(Graff 2002, 43)§REF§ = i.e. the princes who were dudu commanded both their own army and the garrison forces of the \"outer\" army.<br>1. Emperor<br><br>2. Generals <i>inferred</i>Centralized command and control. \"The Ts'in inherited the Wei system after AD 265, until Ssu-ma Yen deliberately abandoned the centralised system of command and placed members of his family in control of private armies.\"§REF§(Peers 1995, 21)§REF§<br>relatives only commanded small units of bodyguards §REF§(Peers 1995, 21)§REF§<br>3. Local commander§REF§(De Crespigny 1991, 26)§REF§ of outer army called dudu§REF§(Graff 2002, 44)§REF§<br>from 290 CE \"dudu were once again allowed to hold provincial governorships concurrently with their military offices, giving them full control of both civil and military affairs in their assigned regions\"§REF§(Graff 2002, 44)§REF§4. Officers - commanders, captains etc. <i>inferred</i>5. <i>inferred</i>6. <i>inferred</i>7. Individual soldier<br>3. Leader of division of inner army <i>inferred</i>Conquered southern state of Wu. Final campaign 279 CE. \"200,000 Jin troops marching against Wu in six columns\" §REF§(Graff 2002, 35)§REF§ = six columns suggest something about army structure<br>4. Officers - commanders, captains etc. <i>inferred</i>5. <i>inferred</i>6. <i>inferred</i>7. Individual soldier", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 7, "polity": { "id": 254, "name": "CnErJin", "start_year": 265, "end_year": 317, "long_name": "Western Jin", "new_name": "cn_western_jin_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Western Jin dynasty (House of Sima, Jin dynasty) briefly reunified China after the Three Kingdoms period, but was marked by political turmoil and internal rebellion. Sima Yan overthrew Cao Wei emperor Cao Huan in 265 CE and declared himself the Western Jin emperor.§REF§ (San 2014, 145) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ In its 280 CE conquest of Eastern Wu, Western Jin dynasty ended the Three Kingdoms period and reunified China.§REF§ (San 2014, 145) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ However, the central government was in almost constant turmoil because of internal conflict and corruption.§REF§ (San 2014, 145) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ A series of rebellions of princes against imperial authority known as the Revolts of the Imperial Princes (291-306 CE) weakened the central government and led to the Disorder of the Five Tribes (304-316 CE), a large uprising of northern nomadic tribes.§REF§ (San 2014, 146) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ In 316 CE, an imperial Jin prince fled south when a Xiongnu chief attacked the Western Jin capital of Luoyang. The prince went on to found the Eastern Jin dynasty in present day Nanjing.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.de <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html</a> Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5</a> §REF§ §REF§ (San 2014, 146) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§<br>The territory of the Western Jin empire was close to the size of the Han empire.§REF§ (Theobald 2011a) Theobald, U. 2011a. “Chinese History- Jin Period Geography.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-map.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-map.html</a> Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VJ4ZVERD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VJ4ZVERD</a> §REF§ We have estimated that Western Jin polity territory covered 4.5 million square kilometers in 300 CE.<br>Despite the political turmoil of the period, advancements made in agriculture, craftsmanship, architecture, medicine, astronomy, and mathematics.§REF§ (Theobald 2011b) Theobald, U. 2011b. “Chinese History- Science, Technology, and Inventions of the Three Kingdoms, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-tech.html</a> Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/T5FAI5I6\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/T5FAI5I6</a> §REF§ Buddhism continued to spread throughout China, and Daoism was revived and seen as a more well-defined religion.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.de<a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html</a> Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5</a> §REF§ There were many writers, poets and artists from the time of the Jin and the period is often seen as the first period for traditional Chinese art.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.de <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html</a> Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5</a> §REF§<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Western Jin maintained many administrative structures of the Han. The empire was divided into provinces and semi-autonomous kingdoms.§REF§ (Theobald 2011a) Theobald, U. 2011a. “Chinese History- Jin Period Geography.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-map.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-map.html</a> Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VJ4ZVERD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VJ4ZVERD</a> §REF§ However the Western Jin operated as a neo-feudal society.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.de<a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html</a> Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5</a> §REF§ Military rulers governed with the support of relatives, and Confucian values gradually disappeared from the central government and the education system.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.de <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html</a> Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5</a> §REF§ The weak central government struggled to control the non-Chinese tribes living in the empire.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.de<a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html</a> Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5</a> §REF§<br>The population of the Western Jin empire was recorded as 16.16 million in a 280 CE census.§REF§ (Graff 2002, 35)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a> §REF§The population of Luoyang was 600,000 people in 300 CE.§REF§ (Graff 2002, 50 )Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:43:48.030844Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 8, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels.<br>[(4) Provincial Military Authorities; (3) Senior Chinese Officers;] (2) Chinese and Hmong Petty Officers; (1) Chinese and Hmong Soldiers<br>The Chinese administration had established military units, including Hmong petty officers, before the onset of the republican period: 'When the Miao rebellion was put down in the first year of Chia Ch'ing /1796/, it was found that the policy of governing the Miao with Chinese was wrong. The then governor-general of Hunan and Kwangtung, Pi Yüan, submitted a plan to govern the Miao with Miao. The ministry's response to the memorial setting up regulations for Miao officials, Miao Chiang Chin- Yao Shan-Hou Shih I /Important Remedial Measures for the Miao Frontier Region/, has a passage, “Miao Chiang Pe Hu Chai Ch'ang Ming-Mu Ying Cho Liang Keng Ting /The Names of the Village Leaders of 100 Families Should be Decided after Due Deliberation/,” stating: “According to the memorial, in the three provinces of Szechwan, Kweichow, and Hupeh, such areas as Yu-yang and T'ung-jen were all previously governed by headmen, but following their application to be put under government officials, the administrative areas of chou, hsien, and ying were established, subject to the jurisdiction of civil and military authorities. In the Miao villages, there were established only village chiefs to govern a unit of 100 families. However, since Chinese were also permitted to fill these posts, gradually there were rapacious, unscrupulous rogues, whose mistreatment caused disturbances. It is requested that from among the Miao who have submitted, and on whom were conferred the peacock feather decoration /for merit, in early Ch'ing times/, there be selected some intelligent, aware persons, to be appointed at each ying /military station/ as native second captain /shoupei/, lieutenant /ch'ien-tsung/, and sergeant or corporal /wai-wei/, such positions to be filled through the governor-general and governor's /tu-wu/ yamen /tu-wu ya-men/ and to be subject to the control of the civil and military authorities. When the various t'ang hsin in the Miao area have official despatches to send, they can order the said native petty officers to select Miao to question and send, and also to give them some cash and rations. When officials traveling on official business require servants, they may also recruit them from the Miao, and pay them wages according to the Chinese scales. It would appear that the 100-families village chief was originally inaugurated to discipline the Miao, but these men were unimportant and their powers limited, as that the Miao did not heed them. Moreover, among the Chinese holding such positions there were rapacious, unscrupulous rogues, whose mistreatment led to disturbances. This should naturally be explained, deliberated, and changed, so as to fix responsibility. During the recent campaign those submissive Miao who accompanied the army and won peacock feather awards are numerous, therefore from these select those who are intelligent and aware, and who have the support of the rest, and according to the customary set-up of t'u-kuan /officials governing aboriginal tribes in West China/, every Ying should have one or two men to be native second captains, under whom there should be native lieutenants and sergeants, for better control of the Miao. Their number will depend upon the number of villages put under control, and they shall be appointed by the governor-general and governor's yamen and also be under the control of regional officials. If there are fights, robberies and thefts among the Miao these native officers will be asked to make the arrests. On their inspection tours, the governor-general and governor and military officials should examine the merits and demerits of these officers and reward or punish them accordingly to demonstrate justice, following the recommendations memorialized by Governor-general Ho Lin. When the t'ang-hsin system of communication in the Miao area has been abolished, official communications should be despatched according to old methods so as to avoid delay. In the regions where the t'ang-hsin system exists as before, the local officials /t'u kuan/ should be asked to pick out honest Miao to be given the responsibility of delivering messages after being questioned, to be paid wages and rations from unallotted funds, according to the scale for t'un soldiers. When officials traveling on official business need servants, then order the said Miao to serve, and pay them wages according to recommendations memorialized.”' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 152§REF§ The Chinese military administration was highly formalized, as evidenced in clerical documents outlining the organizational structure of Chinese army divisions: '2. Regulations for the organization and administration of the T'un Bureau from the headquarters of the newly organized Thirty-Fourth Division of the Army. Article 1. The said Bureau is to be organized on the order of Divisional Commander Ch'en of the newly organized Thirty-Fourth Division. Article 2. The said Bureau shall set up, according to the temporary organization regulations of the Division, a chief and a deputy chief, three department heads, a number of departmental staff, clerks, and copyists. Article 3. The chief of the Bureau will receive orders from the Commander of the Division, and will have general superintendence over the t'un army west of the Hsiang River, and Miao defense officials and soldiers, t'un grain supplies, and the keeping in order of t'un properties, and coordinate everything, with the authority to direct and supervise all the Bureau's personnel. Article 4. The said Bureau shall have three departments, Departments One, Two, and Three. Each department head shall receive his orders from the chief of the Bureau, to assist him by dividing control over military matters, t'un matters, and general matters, with the responsibility to direct and manage his particular department's responsibilities.' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 177§REF§ Senior t'un leaders and Hmong petty officials fulfilled multiple administrative and security-related tasks in the area, while receiving state salaries, produce, or arable land: 'The t'un fields in the Miao frontier were divided into people's /i.e. Chinese/ t'uns and Miao t'uns, the two being entirely different in nature. The t'un males working on the Chinese t'uns were also divided into t'un men and fighting men. The t'un men received fields to cultivate, and guarded the t'un guard houses. The fighting men, also called home guards, were solely trained for military operations, and did not farm. In the five sub-prefectures and hsiens of the Miao frontier there are 7,000 t'un men, from among whom are appointed hsiao-ch'i, tsung-ch'i, and pe-tsung to facilitate control. The distribution of fields was as follows: the men /san ting/ are each given 4.5 mu; the hsiao-ch'i, 5.5 mu; the tsung-ch'i, 6.5 mu; and the pe-tsung, 7.5 mu. There are 1,000 fighting men, each being given 3 shih, 6 tou of rice per year. The non-fighting men are also each given annually 10.8 liang of silver for salt and vegetables. The hsiao-ch'i receives each year 12 liang of silver; the tsung-ch'i, 13.2 liang of silver; the pe-tsung, 16.8 liang of silver. Therefore, in the Chinese t'un, the fields and land left over after the t'un men have received their fields to plant and care for are leased out for the collection of rent. Granaries (Illus. 57) have been built to store the grain, and general t'un leaders are set up to manage these matters. There are no t'un men in the Miao t'uns, and the t'un fields are allotted to people to cultivate /Illus. 57 and 58 on pages 124 and 125/ for the collection of rent, in order to feed the Miao soldiers, under the control of the Miao officials. The t'un fields in the Miao frontier region, at the inception of the system, totaled 150,000 mu of arable land, of which barely a third was directly cultivated by t'un personnel, the rest being allotted out as rented fields. Today, the t'un army in the Miao frontier region is about 1,000 strong. The maintainance of the Black Flag Battalion of the Miao troops (Illus. 58) largely comes from the rented fields. T'un fields were set up to support troops on the spot as a defense against the Miao. Today, the Miao have been largely acculturated by the Chinese and the boundary line between the Miao and the Chinese is gradually becoming obliterated. There is no longer the need for this kind of system of t'un defense against the Miao. In fact, unrest in the Miao area today is often due to the maladministration of the t'un fields system. The Miao petty officers and the t'un leaders often are oppressive in collecting rent and sometimes are corrupt in their methods, thus causing dissatisfaction and disturbances. In the twenty-sixth year of the Republic /1937/ the Miao rebellion in western Hunan arose because of the t'un land system. It resulted in the burning of t'un granaries and killing of t'un officers. Although the rebellion was pacified only after bloody and expensive campaigns, it is imperative to change the t'un and enter the newly opened or reclaimed land as available for taxation, so as to reach a fundamental solution.' §REF§Ling, Shun-sheng, Yifu Ruey, and Lien-en Tsao 1947. “Report On An Investigation Of The Miao Of Western Hunan”, 182§REF§ We have assumed that these observations are true for the A-Hmao as well, despite of historical differences. [The A-Hmao group doesn't appear to have been directly involved in the more eastern Hmong rebellions, but it appears to have been increasingly subsumed by the Late Qing/Early Chinese in the aftermath of these rebellions.]", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 2, "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "CnHChin", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941, "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "new_name": "cn_hmong_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Hmong are an agricultural people who have inhabited southern China for about 2000 years. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X</a>. §REF§ Made up of several distinct cultures, they are also known as the 'Miao', an insulting term that loosely translates to 'barbarians' or 'bumpkins'. §REF§ (Fadiman 1997) Fadiman, Anne. 1997. The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two Cultures. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. §REF§ The Qing Dynasty was marked by a series of Hmong uprisings, first in western Hunan from 1795 to 1806 CE, and then in Guizhou from 1854 to 1872. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Throughout most of Hmong history, Chinese governmental control was imposed indirectly through native headmen known as <i>tusi</i>, who were responsible for keeping the peace, tax collection and organizing corvée labour. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X</a>. §REF§ During the Republican period, the Chinese government attempted to assimilate the Hmong as much as possible and heavily discouraged displays of Hmong ethnicity. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X</a>. §REF§ <br>In 1954, the population of the Hmong was estimated at 150,000. §REF§ (Graham 1954, 1) Graham, David Crockett. 1954. Songs and Stories of the Ch’uan Miao. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TWKSXKI8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TWKSXKI8</a>. §REF§ Secure population estimates for earlier periods are lacking but the Hmong may have numbered around 200,000 during the Qing Dynasty.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:41:17.246418Z", "home_nga": { "id": 22, "name": "Southern China Hills", "subregion": "South China", "longitude": "103.991730960000", "latitude": "27.538834142800", "capital_city": "Guizhou", "nga_code": "YUN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 59, "name": "South China", "subregions_list": "Yangtze Basin and South China", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 20, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) Prominent War-Leaders; (2) Local Headmen and Leaders (Kakaram; Kuraka); (3) Citizen-soldiers or Warriors<br>Shuar military organization was informal, given the political autonomy of local groups: 'The Jivaro lack any formal political organization, although an informal form of leadership is found in the role of individuals referred to as UNYÄ (\"big\" or \"old\" men) or KAKARAM (\"powerful\" or \"powerful ones\") who are renown as killers in feuds or war, or exercise important shamanistic powers in the community. These individuals acquire their reputation in the community by being old enough to have grandchildren, and are friendly, honest, and generous in dealing with others in the society. Because of these characteristics the UNYÄ or KAKARAM are believed to possess great ARUTAM soul power and the ability to curse to death anyone who incurs their anger. Generally most neighborhoods have at least one or two UNYÄ as well as a few superior shamans who provide protection for their relatives or other individuals with whom they are on friendly terms.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'Each community is politically independent with its own headman. Each is also located four or more kilometers from their nearest neighboring community. The community is made up of patrilineally and affinally related individuals, traditionally consisting of from 80 to 300 people (30 to 40 people in the twentieth century), living in one house called a JIVARIA. For defensive purposes, this house is built on a steep hill usually at the upper end of a stream. The house itself is approximately 13 meters by 26 meters in size, elliptical in shape, and has a thatched roof. In times of war, two or more communities united to fight a common enemy, as was the case when the Spanish attempted to conquer them.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'Their society is thus based on the family and the blood tie. Only such sub-tribes as recognize some sort of consanguinity display a feeling of solidarity: the rest, although they speak the same language, are looked upon, not only as outsiders, but as downright natural enemies, a feature which will be further illustrated in the part dealing with their wars. It is as a rule between the different sub-tribes that the wars of extermination have occurred.' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru”, 183p§REF§ Warriors were accordingly male members of feuding communities: 'The terrible custom demands ever new, ever more victims, all security must disappear, every individual constantly lives in danger of being ambushed; there is a general and permanent state of war. Hence the arrangement of the houses, one door of which can be used for flight, while the battle rages at the other; hence the customs mentioned at the beginning in connection with approaching a dwelling, for the protection of which, in addition, a pack of half-wild dogs are kept. A quarrel between two families must lead to battles between whole tribes; larger groups of tribes become hostile to one another; war and battle become customary, a man's lifework. A longer period of quiet, of peace, must be unbearable for such a nation of warriors. Ambitious, bold leaders will easily find companions for joint war expeditions; the neighboring nations are attacked and plundered. Thus, these Indians are carrying on among themselves a war of annihilation which must gradually bring about their own downfall. Severe depopulation is already noticeable in the region of the Jívaros, and it is being accelerated by epidemics, of the diseases introduced by the Europeans, which appear with great violence at times.' §REF§Reiss, W. (Wilhelm) 1880. “Visit Among The Jivaro Indians”, 13§REF§ Warfare was deeply connected to headhunting: 'The primary motivation for warfare is to secure as many human heads as possible from an alien tribe, and secondarily to capture women. The acquisition of territory had never been a motive for engaging in warfare. The war party, consisting of approximately thirty or forty men, is recruited from the community itself or from friendly neighborhoods nearby, and is usually led by the or as war leader or chief. Actual warfare consists of preliminary ceremonies involving ritualized chanting, surprise attacks against one or two enemy houses, the killing and decapitation of the inhabitants or the occasional capture of a girl or woman as an extra wife, and the preparation of the on the return to the home village. Unlike many of the warlike Amazon tribes captives are not tortured or sacrificed, nor is cannibalism practiced.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ Local leaders and chiefs often combined 'political' and 'military' duties rather than separating them: '“The dignity of a chieftain is hereditary in a relative sense, in so far that the son of a chief is generally elected chief in time of war after his father has died or grown decrepit. This, however, can only take place if he has proved a valiant and skilled warrior and has killed enemies. No Jibaro is selected as a chief if he has not killed at least one enemy. The Jibaros have absolute faith in the heritability of prominent qualities, and ascribe extraordinary importance to education and the power of example. The son of a great chief, they say, must necessarily also become an able warrior because he is, as it were, a direct continuation of his father, has received a careful education for the deeds of war, and has always had the good example of his great father before his eyes.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru”, 267§REF§ In times of war against external colonial enemies or larger tribal groups, different communities combined to attach themselves to a common war-leader, although even those arrangements were fluid and often of an ad hoc character. [Family and local leadership can extend beyond a single community; even in recent times (ie, in the 1970’s) some particularly strong men could aggregate several local groups in conflict situations and lead quite large war parties; however, such positions were unstable and rarely lasted more than a few years, if that. The definition of ‘community’ is highly relative; ‘my people’ can include a single nuclear family, or a collection of communities temporarily coalesced around a powerful war leader.] 'Still, as appears from their history, there have been occasions when they have been able to overcome the natural antipathy separating them from one another, and to unite against a common enemy. This common enemy has been the white man, who has so often threatened [184] the liberty of the people; but the alliances, such as that for instance in 1599, have been exceptional and wholly due to the influence of a single, eminent personality.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru\", 183p§REF§' 'When a whole tribe, or perhaps several tribes together, prepare a war against one or more other tribes, the first thing done is to elect a common chief. He should be an elderly, experienced man, who has taken part in several wars, killed many enemies, and celebrated at least one victory feast. The rest of the warriors, who are generally younger men, swear him unlimited obedience. During the time the expedition is planned and the preparations are made, the warriors, and especially the chief, repeatedly drink maikoa or natéma to consult the spirits. They pay great attention to their dreams, even to those not produced under the direct influence of the narcotic drinks, tell them to each other, and discuss their possible significance. Only if they believe that they have received favourable answers and all omens are good are measures taken to carry out the war plan conceived. Meanwhile they try, through spies, to acquire as accurate a knowledge as possible about everything concerning the enemy: how many houses there are in the tract, how many fighting men in each house, if the houses are fortified, if the [283] men are well armed, and especially if they have firearms. All these and similar details the spies investigate by making trips into the country of the enemy and by stealing at night to the houses. Everything is prepared with the greatest secrecy possible, so that the enemy is caught unprepared, for otherwise he will have time to take measures of defence that may defeat the whole undertaking.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru\", 282p§REF§ '“The authority of the chief elected for a war is very great. It is he alone who arranges everything for the expedition planned, who decides [268] about the time for and the mode of making the attack, and the younger warriors oblige themselves to obey him in everything. But as soon as a war has been carried to a successful end the power of the chief ceases, and he has, in spite of the great repute he always enjoys, no more authority or right to decide about the doings of his tribesmen than any other family-father among the Jibaros.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru”, 267p§REF§ Ecuador later recognized some of those leaders as regional head-chiefs: 'Four or five years ago there was a strong chief on the Upano River named Tuki, known to the Ecuadoreans as José Grande. In the manner previously described, all of the curakas from Macas on the Upano River to Mendez on the Paute River became subchiefs under him until he was generally recognized as the strongest of all of the Jivaro curakas. However, he was beginning to grow old by this time and some of his subcurakas were strong men in their own right. About 2 years ago, Ambusha, who had been gradually gaining in power and becoming famous for his head-hunting activities, split off with his own group, taking several curakas and their men with him. A little later Utita did the same thing. At the time of the writer's visit (1931), although Tuki was recognized by the Government of Ecuador as being head chief of the Macas-Mendez region, actually he had lost all power excepting that over his own family group and was in reality no more than a capito. These divisions of the organization, if it may be termed such, took place apparently without any ill-feeling or formal announcements.' §REF§Stirling, Matthew Williams 1938. “Historical And Ethnographical Material On The Jivaro Indians”, 40§REF§ This may be true even for the Spanish colonial period, given the temporary 'peace pacts' concluded between settlers and natives (see General Variables for context).", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "EcJivaE", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830, "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "new_name": "ec_shuar_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The forested foothills of the Andes, near the border between Ecuador and Peru, have long been inhabited by the Shuar, subsistence horticulturalists living in autonomous residential hamlets. There are many Shuar groups, but here we focus specifically on the Ecuadorian group commonly known simply as 'Shuar'. Europeans - specifically, Spaniards - first encountered the Shuar in the 16th century and soon imposed tributes, which the Shuar paid, in increasing amounts, until they rebelled in 1599, driving the Spanish out of the region. Indeed, the Shuar were able to ward off outside interference up until 1930, just as they were able to avoid being subjugated by the Inca. In 1930, Catholic missionaries persuaded the Ecuadorian government to provide a reservation for the Shuar. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Authority among the Shuar was mostly informal and local, and resided in men referred to as <i>unyä</i> ('big' or 'old' men) or <i>kakaram</i> ('powerful ones'). These were usually renowned warriors or shamans, but they in fact acquired their reputation by being old enough to have grandchildren, as well as through their friendliness, honesty and generosity in dealing with others. The unyä or kakaram were believed to be able to curse to death anyone who angered them. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ <br>The scholarly literature does not provide population estimates, even for the more recent period. Indeed, writing in the 1920s, the ethnographer Fritz W. Up de Graff declared that obtaining accurate statistics relating to the Shuar was an 'impossible task' due to their migratory habits and commitment to concealing their true numbers from potential enemies. §REF§ (Up de Graff 1923, 192-93) Up de Graff, Fritz W. 1923. Head Hunters of the Amazon: Seven Years of Exploration and Adventure. London: H. Jenkins. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 32, "name": "Lowland Andes", "subregion": "Amazonia", "longitude": "-77.674190401400", "latitude": "-2.895375197160", "capital_city": "Logrono", "nga_code": "EC", "fao_country": "Ecuador", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 31, "name": "Amazonia", "subregions_list": "Brazil, Guyanas, plus Amazonian parts of bordering states", "mac_region": { "id": 6, "name": "South America and Caribbean" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 21, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels.<br>(31) Prominent War-Leaders; (2) Local Headmen and Leaders (Kakaram; Kuraka); (3) Citizen-soldiers or Warriors<br>Shuar military organization was informal, given the political autonomy of local groups: 'The Jivaro lack any formal political organization, although an informal form of leadership is found in the role of individuals referred to as UNYÄ (\"big\" or \"old\" men) or KAKARAM (\"powerful\" or \"powerful ones\") who are renown as killers in feuds or war, or exercise important shamanistic powers in the community. These individuals acquire their reputation in the community by being old enough to have grandchildren, and are friendly, honest, and generous in dealing with others in the society. Because of these characteristics the UNYÄ or KAKARAM are believed to possess great ARUTAM soul power and the ability to curse to death anyone who incurs their anger. Generally most neighborhoods have at least one or two UNYÄ as well as a few superior shamans who provide protection for their relatives or other individuals with whom they are on friendly terms.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'Each community is politically independent with its own headman. Each is also located four or more kilometers from their nearest neighboring community. The community is made up of patrilineally and affinally related individuals, traditionally consisting of from 80 to 300 people (30 to 40 people in the twentieth century), living in one house called a JIVARIA. For defensive purposes, this house is built on a steep hill usually at the upper end of a stream. The house itself is approximately 13 meters by 26 meters in size, elliptical in shape, and has a thatched roof. In times of war, two or more communities united to fight a common enemy, as was the case when the Spanish attempted to conquer them.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ 'Their society is thus based on the family and the blood tie. Only such sub-tribes as recognize some sort of consanguinity display a feeling of solidarity: the rest, although they speak the same language, are looked upon, not only as outsiders, but as downright natural enemies, a feature which will be further illustrated in the part dealing with their wars. It is as a rule between the different sub-tribes that the wars of extermination have occurred.' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru”, 183p§REF§ Warriors were accordingly male members of feuding communities: 'The terrible custom demands ever new, ever more victims, all security must disappear, every individual constantly lives in danger of being ambushed; there is a general and permanent state of war. Hence the arrangement of the houses, one door of which can be used for flight, while the battle rages at the other; hence the customs mentioned at the beginning in connection with approaching a dwelling, for the protection of which, in addition, a pack of half-wild dogs are kept. A quarrel between two families must lead to battles between whole tribes; larger groups of tribes become hostile to one another; war and battle become customary, a man's lifework. A longer period of quiet, of peace, must be unbearable for such a nation of warriors. Ambitious, bold leaders will easily find companions for joint war expeditions; the neighboring nations are attacked and plundered. Thus, these Indians are carrying on among themselves a war of annihilation which must gradually bring about their own downfall. Severe depopulation is already noticeable in the region of the Jívaros, and it is being accelerated by epidemics, of the diseases introduced by the Europeans, which appear with great violence at times.' §REF§Reiss, W. (Wilhelm) 1880. “Visit Among The Jivaro Indians”, 13§REF§ Warfare was deeply connected to headhunting: 'The primary motivation for warfare is to secure as many human heads as possible from an alien tribe, and secondarily to capture women. The acquisition of territory had never been a motive for engaging in warfare. The war party, consisting of approximately thirty or forty men, is recruited from the community itself or from friendly neighborhoods nearby, and is usually led by the or as war leader or chief. Actual warfare consists of preliminary ceremonies involving ritualized chanting, surprise attacks against one or two enemy houses, the killing and decapitation of the inhabitants or the occasional capture of a girl or woman as an extra wife, and the preparation of the on the return to the home village. Unlike many of the warlike Amazon tribes captives are not tortured or sacrificed, nor is cannibalism practiced.' §REF§Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Jivaro§REF§ Local leaders and chiefs often combined 'political' and 'military' duties rather than separating them: '“The dignity of a chieftain is hereditary in a relative sense, in so far that the son of a chief is generally elected chief in time of war after his father has died or grown decrepit. This, however, can only take place if he has proved a valiant and skilled warrior and has killed enemies. No Jibaro is selected as a chief if he has not killed at least one enemy. The Jibaros have absolute faith in the heritability of prominent qualities, and ascribe extraordinary importance to education and the power of example. The son of a great chief, they say, must necessarily also become an able warrior because he is, as it were, a direct continuation of his father, has received a careful education for the deeds of war, and has always had the good example of his great father before his eyes.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru”, 267§REF§ In times of war against external colonial enemies or larger tribal groups, different communities combined to attach themselves to a common war-leader, although even those arrangements were fluid and often of an ad hoc character. [Family and local leadership can extend beyond a single community; even in recent times (ie, in the 1970’s) some particularly strong men could aggregate several local groups in conflict situations and lead quite large war parties; however, such positions were unstable and rarely lasted more than a few years, if that. The definition of ‘community’ is highly relative; ‘my people’ can include a single nuclear family, or a collection of communities temporarily coalesced around a powerful war leader.] 'Still, as appears from their history, there have been occasions when they have been able to overcome the natural antipathy separating them from one another, and to unite against a common enemy. This common enemy has been the white man, who has so often threatened [184] the liberty of the people; but the alliances, such as that for instance in 1599, have been exceptional and wholly due to the influence of a single, eminent personality.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru\", 183p§REF§' 'When a whole tribe, or perhaps several tribes together, prepare a war against one or more other tribes, the first thing done is to elect a common chief. He should be an elderly, experienced man, who has taken part in several wars, killed many enemies, and celebrated at least one victory feast. The rest of the warriors, who are generally younger men, swear him unlimited obedience. During the time the expedition is planned and the preparations are made, the warriors, and especially the chief, repeatedly drink maikoa or natéma to consult the spirits. They pay great attention to their dreams, even to those not produced under the direct influence of the narcotic drinks, tell them to each other, and discuss their possible significance. Only if they believe that they have received favourable answers and all omens are good are measures taken to carry out the war plan conceived. Meanwhile they try, through spies, to acquire as accurate a knowledge as possible about everything concerning the enemy: how many houses there are in the tract, how many fighting men in each house, if the houses are fortified, if the [283] men are well armed, and especially if they have firearms. All these and similar details the spies investigate by making trips into the country of the enemy and by stealing at night to the houses. Everything is prepared with the greatest secrecy possible, so that the enemy is caught unprepared, for otherwise he will have time to take measures of defence that may defeat the whole undertaking.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru\", 282p§REF§ '“The authority of the chief elected for a war is very great. It is he alone who arranges everything for the expedition planned, who decides [268] about the time for and the mode of making the attack, and the younger warriors oblige themselves to obey him in everything. But as soon as a war has been carried to a successful end the power of the chief ceases, and he has, in spite of the great repute he always enjoys, no more authority or right to decide about the doings of his tribesmen than any other family-father among the Jibaros.”' §REF§Karsten, Rafael 1935. “Head-Hunters Of Western Amazonas: The Life And Culture Of The Jibaro Indians Of Eastern Ecuador And Peru”, 267p§REF§ Ecuador recognized some of those leaders as regional head-chiefs: 'Four or five years ago there was a strong chief on the Upano River named Tuki, known to the Ecuadoreans as José Grande. In the manner previously described, all of the curakas from Macas on the Upano River to Mendez on the Paute River became subchiefs under him until he was generally recognized as the strongest of all of the Jivaro curakas. However, he was beginning to grow old by this time and some of his subcurakas were strong men in their own right. About 2 years ago, Ambusha, who had been gradually gaining in power and becoming famous for his head-hunting activities, split off with his own group, taking several curakas and their men with him. A little later Utita did the same thing. At the time of the writer's visit (1931), although Tuki was recognized by the Government of Ecuador as being head chief of the Macas-Mendez region, actually he had lost all power excepting that over his own family group and was in reality no more than a capito. These divisions of the organization, if it may be termed such, took place apparently without any ill-feeling or formal announcements.' §REF§Stirling, Matthew Williams 1938. “Historical And Ethnographical Material On The Jivaro Indians”, 40§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "EcJivaL", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931, "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "new_name": "ec_shuar_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The forested foothills of the Andes, near the border between Ecuador and Peru, have long been inhabited by the Shuar, subsistence horticulturalists living in autonomous residential hamlets. There are many Shuar groups, but here we focus specifically on the Ecuadorian group commonly known simply as 'Shuar'. Europeans - specifically, Spaniards - first encountered the Shuar in the 16th century and soon imposed tributes, which the Shuar paid, in increasing amounts, until they rebelled in 1599, driving the Spanish out of the region. Indeed, the Shuar were able to ward off outside interference up until 1930, just as they were able to avoid being subjugated by the Inca. In 1930, Catholic missionaries persuaded the Ecuadorian government to provide a reservation for the Shuar. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Authority among the Shuar was mostly informal and local, and resided in men referred to as <i>unyä</i> ('big' or 'old' men) or <i>kakaram</i> ('powerful ones'). These were usually renowned warriors or shamans, but they in fact acquired their reputation by being old enough to have grandchildren, as well as through their friendliness, honesty and generosity in dealing with others. The unyä or kakaram were believed to be able to curse to death anyone who angered them. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ <br>The scholarly literature does not provide population estimates, even for the more recent period. Indeed, writing in the 1920s, the ethnographer Fritz W. Up de Graff declared that obtaining accurate statistics relating to the Shuar was an 'impossible task' due to their migratory habits and commitment to concealing their true numbers from potential enemies. §REF§ (Up de Graff 1923, 192-93) Up de Graff, Fritz W. 1923. Head Hunters of the Amazon: Seven Years of Exploration and Adventure. London: H. Jenkins. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 32, "name": "Lowland Andes", "subregion": "Amazonia", "longitude": "-77.674190401400", "latitude": "-2.895375197160", "capital_city": "Logrono", "nga_code": "EC", "fao_country": "Ecuador", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 31, "name": "Amazonia", "subregions_list": "Brazil, Guyanas, plus Amazonian parts of bordering states", "mac_region": { "id": 6, "name": "South America and Caribbean" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 22, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "<br>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "EgBadar", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800, "long_name": "Badarian", "new_name": "eg_badarian", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Badarian, a Neolithic archaeological culture located in Upper Egypt and dating from c. 4400 to 3300 BCE, was first described in 1928 by archaeologists Guy Brunton and Gertrude Caton-Thompson, who excavated in the Badari district near Assyut. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 138) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i> 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ Its relationship to an earlier culture, called the Tasian, is unclear, §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ but there is some evidence to link it to the later Naqada I period in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Little is known of the everyday lives of the people who occupied the Badarian sites: our information comes mainly from the numerous grave sites in the region around Assyut.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Research on Badarian sites has yielded a total of about 600 graves and 40 poorly documented settlements. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The culture was first identified in the el-Badari region, near the modern city of Sohag, but several small sites near the villages of Qau el-Kebir, Hammamiya, Mostagedda, and Matmar are also categorized as Badarian. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Characteristic Badarian material culture has also been discovered much further south at Mahgar Dendera, Armant, Elkab, and Hierakonpolis, as well as to the east of the Nile in the Wadi Hammamat. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The archaeology of the period has inevitably been affected by the flooding of the Nile over the millennia: any larger, more permanent settlements were likely situated close to the great river and subsequently washed away or covered with alluvium. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Surviving remains come from raised desert spurs and include 'huts and windbreaks associated with hearths and large, well-shaped granary pits or silos'. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 153) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i> 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ A Badarian settlement at Deir Tasa covered an area of about 5000 square metres. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 153) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i> 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ At the Seshat standard of 50-200 inhabitants per hectare, this gives us an estimated population between the range of 25 and 100 inhabitants.<br>Evidence from Badarian settlements shows that the people who occupied these sites were primarily engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry, §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ but we know trade also occurred. Badarians imported raw materials like wood, turquoise, shells and ivory and exchanged goods with groups from as far away as Palestine, the Red Sea and Syria. §REF§ (Trigger 1983, 29) Bruce G. Trigger. 1983. 'The Rise of Egyptian Civilization', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i> edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B Lloyd, 1-70. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Model boats found at the site of Merimda to the north 'suggest that boats and canoes were already in use [in Egypt] before 4500 B.C.' §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 157) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i> 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ <br>Very little can be concluded about Badarian political and social structure, but analysis of grave goods shows that there was an unequal distribution of wealth, and that the wealthier graves tended to be kept separate within the cemeteries. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ However, no monumental remains have been found so it is likely that higher-status members of society did not command a significant labour force.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 28, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>2. Chief Secretary of Council of War (inferred)<br>3. Council of War (Consejo de Guerra) §REF§(Núñez 2006, 41) Nunez, Alfredo Jiménez. 2006. El Gran Norte de México: Une frontera imperial en la Nueva España (1540-1820). Madrid: Editorial Tebar, S.L. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X</a>§REF§<br>_Tercios_ (“Tercios were not, as a rule, employed within Spain, unless other forces could not be raised. Though well organized they were not numerous, and formed only a small proportion of the total forces available to the crown.”)§REF§(Kamen 2002, 359) Kamen, Henry. 2002. <i>Spain’s Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492-1763</i>. London: Penguin Books. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5IIFB6KQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5IIFB6KQ</a>§REF§<br>4. Captain-General §REF§(López 2012, 38) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>5. Maestre del Campo (Field Marshal): “Chosen by the Crown to command a new Tercio, or by the captain-general of a field army to fill a vacancy. He was to pass on the orders given by the captain-general, and to take command in the latter’s absence.” §REF§(López 2012, 38) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>6. Sergento Mayor (Sergeant-Major): “The second-in-command of the Tercio, he was responsible for passing on the field marshal’s orders to the captains.” §REF§(López 2012, 42) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>7. Capitán (Captain) §REF§(López 2012, 44) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>8. Alférez (Ensign, Lieutenant) §REF§(López 2012, 45) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>9. Sargento (Sergeant) §REF§(López 2012, 47) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>10. Cabo (Corporal) §REF§(López 2012, 47) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>11. Specialist: Arquebusier, Musketeer §REF§(López 2012, 47) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>12. Coselete: soldier with armor §REF§(López 2012, 47) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>13. Pica Seca: soldier without armor §REF§(López 2012, 47) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§<br>Headquarters positions:<ul><li>Tambor Mayor (Drum Major): \"The tambor mayor (drum major) reported directly to the sergeant-major, and was responsible for the training of all company drummers. He had to know the drumbeats of all nations, both allies and enemies. Together with the fife-players, the drummers marked the rhythm for marching.\" §REF§(López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§</li><li>Furriel Mayor (quartermaster-major): \"was responsible for the distribution of equipment and supplies, the organization of quarters, and the necessary bookkeeping. Below him, each company had a quartermaster to perform the same duties on a lesser scale.\" §REF§(López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§</li><li>Barrachel (military provost) §REF§(López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§</li><li>Auditor (legal officer): \"one of his most important tasks was to validate the soldiers’ wills, which they customarily drew up before going into battle.\" §REF§(López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§</li><li>Doctor §REF§(López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§</li><li>Surgeon §REF§(López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§</li><li>Barber §REF§(López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§</li><li>Chaplain-major §REF§(López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. <i>The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ</a>§REF§</li></ul>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 13, "military_level_to": 13, "polity": { "id": 84, "name": "EsHabsb", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715, "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "new_name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Habsburg Dynasty came together as Ferdinand II united the Kingdoms of Aragon and Castile under his rule. When he died in 1516 CE, his grandson Charles I—son of the Aragon Queen Joanna and the Habsburg Philip, a Prince in the Holy Roman Empire—became the first crowned King of All Spain.<br>The Spanish Habsburg empire held territory in northern Europe, Italy, the Mediterranean, the Americas, Africa, India, and the Orient. “Yet Spain itself was rather unpromising material for greatness; the land was barren, the economy backward and the peninsula was politically fragmented.” §REF§ (Darby 2014, preview). Darby, Graham. 2014. <i>Spain in the seventeenth century</i>. New York: Routledge. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH</a> §REF§ <br>The Austrian Habsburg family inherited the Valois duchy of Burgundy (present day Holland, Belgium, Luxemburg, and part of Burgundy) and the crowns of Aragon (including Balearics, Sardinia, Naples, and Sicily) and Castile (including Navarre, and the Americas- Mexico and Peru). This territory was inherited by Charles Habsburg (Charles V, 1519-56). When Charles V abdicated in 1555-56 he spilt the territory between his brother and his son (Austrian and Spanish branches of the Habsburgs), thus expanding the Spanish Habsburg Empire even further by 1556. §REF§ (Darby 2014, preview). Darby, Graham. 2014. <i>Spain in the seventeenth century</i>. New York: Routledge. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH</a> §REF§ <br>Spain's territorial conquests brought in a wealth of gold and other resources from around the world. This boom led to a rapid growth in urbanization and marketization, as several Spanish cities became major hubs of production for manufactured goods (metal products and textiles especially). §REF§ Pocket World History in Figures §REF§ <br>By 1550 the Habsburg Empire had a population of 29 million across the world, including 9 million native people in the lands they had colonised.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-14T12:32:06.256900Z", "home_nga": { "id": 30, "name": "Cuzco", "subregion": "Andes", "longitude": "-72.067772000000", "latitude": "-13.477380000000", "capital_city": "Cuzco", "nga_code": "PE", "fao_country": "Peru", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 30, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. District Chiefs<br>2. Local Headmen and Sub-Chiefs<br>3. Groups of Armed Men or Citizen-Soldiers<br>There were no troops or police forces in the native system: 'There were no police. A chief's brothers or sons might act on his behalf to intimidate or attack someone who had offended him. But it was control of magical power, either by the chief or one his brothers or sons, that made improper conduct liable to punishment. Major craft specialists could also make ill those who violated the taboos of their craft. Finally, members of chiefly lineages and their close associates were likely to have knowledge of sorcery. All such knowledge gave punitive power to chiefs and important specialists. People stressed maintaining the appearance of propriety in behavior so as not to give just cause for offense.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E</a>.§REF§ Prior to 'pacification', violent conflict played out in raids and battles between rival groups of armed men: 'Within districts, conflict arose over land, succession to chiefship, theft, adultery, and avenging homicide. Between districts, it arose over attentions to local women by outside men, the status of one district as subordinate to another, and rights of access to fishing areas. Formal procedures for terminating conflict between districts involved payments of valuables and land by the loosing to the winning side. Fighting involved surprise raids and prearranged meetings on a field of battle. Principle weapons were slings, spears, and clubs. Firearms, introduced late in the nineteenth century, were confiscated by German authorities in 1903. Martial arts included an elaborate system of throws and holds by which an unarmed man could kill, maim or disarm an armed opponent.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E</a>.§REF§ Competition between rival chiefs over the control of land and people was a major factor: 'Traditional Micronesian life was characterized by a belief in the stability of society and culture. People suffered occasional natural disasters, such as cyclones or droughts, but their goal after encountering one of these was to reconstitute the previous state of affairs. Wars occurred in most areas from time to time, mainly at the instigation of competing chiefs. At stake was the control of land—a limited resource—and followers, but there were usually few casualties. Living in small communities on small territories, Micronesians learned to adjust to their neighbours, to remain on good terms with most of them most of the time, and to develop techniques of reconciliation when fights did break out. Micronesians traditionally depended on the cultivation of plant crops and on fishing in shallow reef waters. Because arable land was in short supply for the relatively dense population, Micronesians had a strong practical basis for their attachment to locality and lands. Land rights were usually held through lineages or extended family groups, often backed up by traditions of ancestral origins on the land.' §REF§(Kahn, Fischer and Kiste 2017) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE</a>.§REF§ Conflict among chiefs and their followers did not terminate entirely with 'pacification', although the population was disarmed in the early 20th century: 'In 1904 the disarming of the Truk people was undertaken by the “Kondor.” There were 436 guns and 2,531 cartridges confiscated. For better control the government appointed six head-chiefs, banished some swashbucklers who did not want to submit, and turned out the Japanese. With this a peaceful development was initiated. The missions (Protestant mission since 1879, Catholic mission since 1912) were able to work undisturbed. Unfortunately, the German government took little notice of Truk, since it was too preoccupied with the other islands. Yet many things were accomplished. Under the last director of the station, A. Überhorst, the lagoon was given new impetus in every respect. The relationship between officials and the population was usually a good one, under Mr. Überhorst even a cordial one. Anyone who was on Truk in those years certainly did not see any bad treatment of the natives. Much was done also with regard to health; in particular Dr. Mayer and his wife traveled from island to island without rest in order to take care of the sick. If during the Japanese occupation a young naval officer was not ashamed to assert that the Germans had done nothing for the islands, anyone who lived on the islands during the Japanese period can only say from the heart: “God protect the poor Truk people under the Japanese.”' §REF§Bollig, Laurentius 1927. “Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People”, 253§REF§ 'On the main islands the German government introduced head chiefs (somol lap) who carried the flag. There were six of them, one each on Poloas, Uman, Fefan, Wöla, Udot, and Pol /Pul/. The smaller islands likewise belonged to the sphere of power of the head chiefs. But even this institution could not link the tribes together within themselves or with one another. Some of the lower chiefs sympathize with the head chief for egotistical reasons; others fight against him violently for the same reasons. One who is with him today might be against him tomorrow because he somehow stepped on his toes. It is often enough for the subchief to fight the head chief if his neighboring chief supports him. Thus the picture is constantly changing. [Page 125] There is a continuous, sometimes quiet, sometimes open, warfare of the subchiefs against the head chiefs, the lower chiefs among themselves, the common people against the chiefs. The main reason for this disagreeable phenomenon is the limitless egotism of the Truk people. Everyone strives more or less to be something of a chief also. Strong families who do not like the chief attempt to isolate themselves and choose one from their midst. In addition to this, there are also old family enmities and disputes about land. It is obvious that the islands will never be able to achieve peaceful development in this manner. It is difficult to say who is most to blame for it. In any case the chiefs are not to be pitied, because they behave themselves accordingly. They are to be blamed mostly for the exploitation of the people, their corruptibility, and partiality. Many of them unhesitatingly accept money and objects and help the giver, no matter how many times he is in the wrong.' §REF§Bollig, Laurentius 1927. “Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People”, 124§REF§ We have assumed that the institution of district chief predates the colonial period.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "polity": { "id": 57, "name": "FmTrukE", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1886, "long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk", "new_name": "fm_truk_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Chuuk Islands, part of what is today Micronesia, were first settled in the first century CE. §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 1) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. \"Culture Summary: Chuuk.\" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000</a>. §REF§ The name Chuuk, meaning \"high mountains\", comes from the Chuukese language. §REF§ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. \"Chuuk Islands.\" Encyclopædia Britannica. August 09, 2013. Accessed June 22, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands</a>. §REF§ The islands' first contact with Europeans came in 1528, when they were sighted by Spanish explorers. §REF§ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. \"Chuuk Islands.\" Encyclopædia Britannica. August 09, 2013. Accessed June 22, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands</a>. §REF§ In the late 19th century, the Chuuk islands became part of Spanish and German, then Japanese colonial regimes. §REF§ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. \"Chuuk Islands.\" Encyclopædia Britannica. August 09, 2013. Accessed June 22, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands</a>. §REF§ . After the Second World War, where the islands were a major site of conflict in the Pacific Theater, the Chuuk islands became part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific under US administration. §REF§ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. \"Chuuk Islands.\" Encyclopædia Britannica. August 09, 2013. Accessed June 22, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands</a>. §REF§ .<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the pre-colonial period, Chuuk was extremely fragmented politically. Each district had its own chiefship, which was divided between the \"oldest man in the senior female line in the chiefly lineage and the oldest man in the lineage generally.\" §REF§ Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E</a>. §REF§ <br>During the colonial period, the colonial governments superimposed a colonial administration onto the native system. They appointed head chiefs to lead each of the main Micronesian islands, but the individual communities remained fragmented. §REF§ (Bollig, 1927. 124) Bollig, Laurentius. 1927. \"Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People.\" Munster I W.: Aschendorff. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-022\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-022</a>. §REF§ <br>The only available population figures refer to the colonial period. In 1947, Chuuk's population was about 9,200. §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 1) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. \"Culture Summary: Chuuk.\" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 34, "name": "Chuuk Islands", "subregion": "Micronesia", "longitude": "151.601918000000", "latitude": "7.351343000000", "capital_city": "Chuuk", "nga_code": "MI", "fao_country": "Micronesia", "world_region": "Oceania-Australia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 30, "name": "Polynesia", "subregions_list": "Polynesia", "mac_region": { "id": 8, "name": "Oceania-Australia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 139, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels. One level of military organisation could be inferred based on evidence for inter-village raiding, although the raids would have been small scale and military leadership is unlikely to have been a permanent position.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "polity": { "id": 523, "name": "MxSanGu", "start_year": -1150, "end_year": -700, "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose", "new_name": "mx_san_jose", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The San José phase (1150-850 BCE), named for a settlement located in the Etla subregion of the Valley of Oaxaca, Southern Mexico, and the Guadalupe phase (850-700 BCE), are combined here because of the difficulty of differentiating between the material culture of the two phases. §REF§ (Feinman et al. 1985, 340) Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski, Laura Finsten, Richard E. Blanton and Linda Nicholas. 1985. 'Long-term Demographic Change: A Perspective from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico'. <i>Journal of Field Archaeology</i> 12 (3): 333-62. §REF§ Both phases were characterized by substantial growth at the settlement of San José Mogote, both in terms of population and the construction of non-residential public buildings. §REF§ (Feinman et al. 1985, 340) Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski, Laura Finsten, Richard E. Blanton and Linda Nicholas. 1985. 'Long-term Demographic Change: A Perspective from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico'. <i>Journal of Field Archaeology</i> 12 (3): 333-62. §REF§ Other sites remained relatively small during this period and were located on more productive land in the low piedmont and alluvial zones. §REF§ (Feinman et al. 1985, 340) Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski, Laura Finsten, Richard E. Blanton and Linda Nicholas. 1985. 'Long-term Demographic Change: A Perspective from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico'. <i>Journal of Field Archaeology</i> 12 (3): 333-62. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The degree of social stratification during the San José and Guadalupe phases is a matter of scholarly debate. Archaeologists Joyce Marcus and Kent Flannery identify the emergence of a chiefdom, which would have directed the construction of ceremonial and public spaces. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 93-110) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. <i>Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley</i>. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ However, Richard Blanton et al. §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1999, 36-42) Richard E. Blanton, Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski and Linda M. Nicholas. 1999. <i>Ancient Oaxaca</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ have argued for a more 'corporate form of governance', in which 'members of prominent households' collectively contributed to political decision-making and status distinctions were achieved rather than inherited. §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 111) Arthur A. Joyce. 2009. <i>Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico</i>. Malden, MA: Wiley‐Blackwell. §REF§ While there is no evidence for distinct social classes, burial goods and a range of larger residences suggest that some individuals were more highly ranked within the community than others. §REF§ (Kowalewski, Fisch and Flannery 1983, 50-53) Stephen Kowalewski, Eva Fisch and Kent V. Flannery. 1983. 'San José and Guadalupe Settlement Patterns in the Valley of Oaxaca', in <i>The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations</i>, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, 50-53. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Flannery and Marcus 1983, 53-55) Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus. 1983. 'The Growth of Site Hierarchies in the Valley of Oaxaca: Part I', in <i>The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations</i>, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, 53-64. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ Based on the cranial deformation of some individuals, it has also been argued that there may be evidence for hereditary social rank, although these individuals were not buried with rich goods and so cannot be directly linked with chiefly status within the community. It is possible that although status was mostly determined based on achievements during a person's lifetime, higher status would be more likely for people with a certain parentage. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 106) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. <i>Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley</i>. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The remains of limestone and travertine building materials from a source 5 kilometres from San José Mogote suggest that the occupants of San José Mogote were beginning to extend their authority to surrounding settlements.<br>It has been estimated that there were over 1000 people living at San José Mogote during this period. §REF§ (Flannery and Marcus 2005, 11) Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus. 2005. <i>Excavations at San José Mogote 1: The Household Archaeology</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology. §REF§ The entire valley had an estimated population of around 2000 people divided among 40 communities in the San José phase (1150-850 BCE) and 2000-2500 persons during the Guadalupe phase (850-700 BCE), but these were not integrated into a single polity at this time. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 106, 112) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. <i>Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley</i>. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 26, "name": "Valley of Oaxaca", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-96.761022000000", "latitude": "17.041135000000", "capital_city": "Monte Alban", "nga_code": "OAX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 141, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels. At least two tiers can be inferred for the Toltecs.§REF§(Carballo, David. Personal Communication to Jill Levine and Peter Turchin. Email. April 23, 2020)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 2, "polity": { "id": 14, "name": "MxToltc", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1199, "long_name": "Toltecs", "new_name": "mx_toltec", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the period when the Basin was under the control of a city known as Tula (c. 900-1199 CE). Some scholars have argued that Tula corresponded to Tollan, the capital of the Toltecs; according to the Aztecs as well as other Mesoamerican sources, the Toltecs were the Aztec's hegemonic predecessors in the region. §REF§ (Healan and Cobean 2012: 372) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE</a>. §REF§ Tula itself had up to 60,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ The Basin of Mexico experienced an increase in the number of settlements, and archaeological data suggest that the rural population had access to the same material goods and trading networks as Tula. §REF§ (Healan and Cobean 2012: 377) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE</a>. §REF§ <br>There is no evidence that Tula was the capital of an empire, but it is clear that its influence extended beyond the confines of the Basin of Mexico, and that it extracted food and other revenue from its surrounding region. The city's many buildings with large halls and evidence for feasts and other types of large gatherings, as well as depictions of processions, suggest that, perhaps like Teotihuacan, it may have relied on an administrative system wherein power was distributed among different sectors of society. §REF§ (Healan and Cobean 2012: 380) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 142, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels.<br>(3) Former Chieftains, Bishops and Royal Officials; (2) Lieutenants; (1) Retainers<br>'For the late Commonwealth there should be 3 levels but it is uncertain whether this continued after the end of the Commonwealth. Warfare became much more constricted after about 1250 and the powerful men of the Late Middle Ages probably relied on relatively small bands of retainers (sveinar). However these bands may have been commanded by professional officers (other than the lords themselves) and this is virtually certain in the case of bishops’ retainers.' §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§ We have retined three levels for the time being, but this is open to review. The system of former chieftains and other prominent figures supported by a group of armed followers rather than military forces continued during the Norwegian period: 'During the first years following the establishment of the union conditions in Iceland remained quite unchanged. The godords were still in the hands of the leading chieftains. Gizur, who was to exercise the highest authority as jarl, was unpopular, and his power was very limited. Royal commissioners were sent to Iceland to exercise control with or without his consent, and and he had to share his nominal authority with the powerful Oddaverjar chieftains of southern Iceland, Hrafn Oddsson of the Borgarfjord district, and Orm Ormsson of eastern Iceland. The king regarded him with suspicion; the chieftains hated him because of his rank and title; opposition and difficulties confronted him everywhere. Even his own character and previous record rendered him unfit to maintain peace and order, which was his principal official duty. He was unable to see the need of any change in the general régime, and the last chapter of his stormy life formed a fitting close to the drama of bloody feuds in which he had played so conspicuous a part. Shortly after the meeting of the Althing of 1264, while visiting in southern Iceland, he was suddenly attacked by Thord Andrisson, the head of the Oddaverjar family. With great difficulty he escaped from his assailants, and after gathering an army of 750 men he cruelly ravged the Rangarvalla district, where the Oddaverjar chieftains were dwelling.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 211p§REF§ 'After Gizur's death no new jarl was appointed, and for a time there was no real head of Icelandic affairs. In 1267 Orm Ormsson and Thorvard Thorarinsson went to Norway, Hrafn Oddsson following in 1268. Both Hrafn and Orm seem to have aspired to succeed Gizur, but the king found it advisable not to elevate another chieftain to the rank of jarl, as the title had been very unpopular. After some delay, and probably with the advice of Sturla Thordsson, he gave both ranks as hirdmenn and placed them in charge of Icelandic affairs with no other title than that of valdsmadr, or royal magistrate. Hrafs was to govern the western and Orm the eastern districts. Hrafn assumed the duties of his office, but Orm was drowned shortly after his appointment, probably on the homeward voyage.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 213§REF§ 'The leading writer in Iceland at this time was Sturla Thordsson, second only to Snorri himself as a historian. Hrafn Oddsson's appointment as governor of the Borgarfjord district had made him so dissatisfied that against his better judgment he was presuaded by his son Snorri, a violent youth, to join him in an expedition against Hrafn. This proved a failure, as he had predicted. Snorri was captured, and Sturla himself was forced to leave Iceland, 1263.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 210§REF§ 'He invited Thord and his brothers to a peace conference, but when they came, he pursued his usual tactics and made them prisoners. They were disarmed and condemned to death, but the pleadings of his own men finally moved him to spare the lives of all except Thord, who was executed.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 212§REF§ Despite of occasional armed conflict between prominent leaders, the practice of feuding was largely discontinued under Norwegian rule: 'The royal executive authority and the new efficiency of the courts of law created through the union with Norway terminated the bloody feuds which had hitherto raged between the Icelandic chieftains. An uneventful era of peace followed the turmoils of the Sturlung period. Even the struggle between church and state was now adjusted so that economic life and the pursuits of peace could receive the undivided attention of the people. But the few sources which deal with the political conditions in Iceland during the years following the death of Bishop Arni show that conditions created by the union were causing dissatisfaction and unrest. The chief cause of public discontent was the unsatisfactory arrangement with regard to commerce, the insufficient Norwegian exports to Iceland, together with the policy pursued by the Norwegian government of bringing Icelanders to Norway for trial, and of appointing Norwegians for sýslumenn and lawmen, contrary to the spirit of the union agreement. The chieftains undoubtedly had thought that their political and social organization would be left undisturbed under the union; that they would only be required to pledge their allegiance to the king, pay him taxes, and receive a jarl as his personal representative, as the union agreement expressly stated. But the most far-reaching changes had been wrought. The godors had been abolished, the Althing had been reorganized, Norwegian jurisprudence had been introduced, Norwegians had been appointed to the leading public offices, and Icelanders had been summoned abroad for trial. The Norwegian government had shown an unmistakable disposition to treat Iceland as a dependency.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 227§REF§ Royal officials employed coercive measures for the purpose of the maintenance of law and order: 'The willingness of the king to grant privileges to the church hitherto denied reveals a growing indifference of the Norwegian government to the real welfare of Iceland. An administration by royal officials had been established as a result of the union. Two lawmen were appointed by the king, one for the southern and eastern, and one for the western and northern quarters; sýslumenn were appointed as administrative officials for larger districts, as in Norway, and hirdstjórar were placed as royal governors over the island. But Iceland was now treated so much like other dependencies that the chief interest of the government was to secure from its inhabitants revenues for the royal purse. Víseyrir, or taxes payable to the king, were levied upon the whole country, and became a definite income payable to the king's purse, like the taxes from the Norwegian colonies. This system of taxation gave rise to a royal monopoly on trade with the colonies which proved disastrous to their economic well-being, and hindered their progress. The royal officials usually asserted the authority of the government with stern harshness, and severe punishments for crimes were introduced. In some cases criminals were even buried alive; but law and order were but imperfectly maintained. Even the higher officials themselves would engage in quarrels which sometimes resembled the bloody feuds of earlier periods.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 239p§REF§ But no standing armies were stationed on the island, and royal efforts to secure armed support from Icelanders were unsuccessful: 'Nor did Iceland become a part of Norway's system of national defence. No measures for defence of the country were taken, and it was only on rare occasions that the king attempted to induce the Icelanders to contribute forces or money for the defence of the kingdom, generally with little success.' §REF§Karlsson, Gunnar 2000. \"A Brief History of Iceland\", 19§REF§ 'Strained relations with Denmark and the Hanseatic cities also gave cause for uneasiness and inclined them to favor an adjustment of domestic difficulties. Jarl Alf Erlingsson of Thornberg, who was now the most influential member of the Council, even turned to Iceland to secure military aid for the realm. It was decided that for the defense of the kingdom 240 men should be sent from Iceland, together with those who were otherwise bound to the king's service. [...] The plan was soon abandoned by the Council, but Arni had earned the king's good-will by his loyal attitude.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 222p§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "NorKing", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396, "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "new_name": "no_norway_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Norway (also Norwegian Empire or Old Norse <i>Noregsveldi</i>) originally covered the west coast of Norway and was allied with an earldom in Þrándheimur (modern Trøndelag). It then expanded to eastern Norway in the middle of the 11th century CE, around Viken and modern-day Oslo, including Båhuslen in modern Sweden, and northwards to Hålogaland, Lofoten and Finnmark.<br>Orkney and Shetland became part of the kingdom as early as 875, according to legend, and became an earldom. The Faroe Islands became part of the kingdom of Norway in 1035 CE, and the Hebrides and Man in the 12th century. Iceland and Greenland were added to its territory in 1256-64 and 1262 respectively. In 1266, however, Man and the Hebrides became part of the Kingdom of Scotland. The 'peak' of the kingdom was thus in the 1260s. Each part of the kingdom had its own assembly: four in Norway and a separate assembly for each of the islands or archipelagoes in the realm. Here the chieftains gathered yearly to discuss and decide on key matters for each assembly area. The Icelandic, Faroese and Man assemblies still exist.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The kingdom of Norway was originally a composite of kingdoms or earldoms, with the king of Norway a king of kings. Its extent and composition relied in large part on the fortunes of the royal dynasty, with repeated periods of partition by inheritance and reunification. A fully stable dynasty was only established in about 1240, after a long period of civil war. Royal power was instrumental in introducing Christianity to Norway around 1000, and the church was an important prop to royal power thereafter, providing the bureaucratic framework. The orientation of the Norwegian kingdom shifted after 1314, from North Atlantic expansion to an eastern emphasis, participating in intra-Scandinavian power struggles. In 1397 it joined the Kalmar Union, the kingdom covering the whole of the Swedish, Danish and Norwegian realms. From 1523 to 1814 it was a part of the Danish-Norwegian kingdom, and the Danish king was also the Norwegian king. The population reached about 400,000-600,000 in 1350, before the Black Death, but by 1520 repeated epidemics had reduced the population to around 120,000.<br><i>This description was provided by Árni Daniel Júlíusson and edited by Jenny Reddish.</i>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR: changing the end date from 1380 to 1396, taking it to just before the Kalmar Union. Variables need to be checked to see whether they still apply to the 1381-96 period", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-04-30T12:29:11.149067Z", "home_nga": { "id": 3, "name": "Iceland", "subregion": "Northern Europe", "longitude": "-21.891497000000", "latitude": "64.133088000000", "capital_city": "Reykjavik", "nga_code": "IS", "fao_country": "Iceland", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 17, "name": "Northern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }