Military Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Military Levels.
GET /api/sc/military-levels/?ordering=description
{ "count": 364, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/military-levels/?ordering=description&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 225, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"The scene in the Late Predynastic (Gerzean) Painted Tomb in Hierakonpolis (Kantor, 1944), showing a person smiting enemies in a manner prototypical of that of the later Pharaoh (Baines, 1987), indicates that regional, paramount chiefs may have commanded warriors who were mobilized by district and community chiefs.\" §REF§(Hassan 1988, 172)§REF§<br>1. Chief<br>2. Warriors", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 2, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "EgNaqa2", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300, "long_name": "Naqada II", "new_name": "eg_naqada_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Naqada is a Predynastic archaeological culture located in Upper Egypt, the strip of land flanking the Nile river south of the Faiyum region and north of the First Cataract. Named after the site where British archaeologist Flinders Petrie uncovered a necropolis of over 3000 graves in the late 19th century, §REF§ (Midant-Reynes 2000, 41) Béatrix Midant-Reynes. 2000. 'The Naqada Period (c. 4000-3200 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 41-56. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ the Naqada culture is dated from around 3800 to 3100 BCE. §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 5) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society A</i> 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ The Naqada has been subdivided into three periods ‒ the Amratian, Gerzean, and Semainean ‒ as well as, more recently, into Naqada IA-C, IIA-D, and IIIA-D. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 424) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 2) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society A</i> 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ Seshat's 'Naqada 1' (3800-3550 BCE) corresponds to the Naqada IA-IIB phases; Naqada 2 (3550-3300 BCE) to IIC-IID; and Naqada 3 (3300-3100 BCE) to IIIA-IIIB. We end Naqada 3 with the IIIB-C transition, because the First Dynasty of the Egyptian state is considered to begin with the accession of King Aha in Naqada IIIC. §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 2) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society A</i> 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ Naqada III is also sometimes referred to as the Protodynastic period or 'Dynasty 0'.<br>Early Naqada archaeological material is clustered around the key sites of Naqada itself, Abydos, and Hierakonpolis (ancient Nekhen) in the fertile land nestled around the 'Qena bend' of the Nile. §REF§ (Bard 1994, 267) Kathryn A. Bard. 1994. 'The Egyptian Predynastic: A Review of the Evidence'. <i>Journal of Field Archaeology</i> 21 (3): 265-88. §REF§ However, from the late Naqada II onwards, there is an archaeologically visible expansion of the culture both southwards along the Nile and northwards into Lower Egypt (the Delta), eventually reaching as far north as the Levant in Naqada IIIA-B. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 442-43) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ <br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The 4th millennium BCE was a crucial period for Egyptian state formation. Prior to roughly 3800 BCE, Upper Egypt was inhabited by seasonally mobile farmers and herders, constituting an archaeological culture known as the Badarian. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422, 428-29) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ However, the Naqada periods brought a series of key social transformations to the region, including increasing inequality, a greater commitment to sedentary settlement and cereal farming, the emergence of full-time craft specialists, and, towards the end of the millennium, the invention of writing. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 431-32, 434) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Hendrickx 2011, 93) Stan Hendrickx. 2011. 'Crafts and Craft Specialization', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 93-98. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ §REF§ (Wengrow 2011, 99) David Wengrow. 2011. 'The Invention of Writing in Egypt', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 99-103. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ The growth of hierarchical social structures and the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt laid the foundations for the divine kings and complex bureaucracy of the Old Kingdom and beyond.<br>During Naqada I, new forms of political organization appeared ‒ relatively swiftly compared to other prehistoric cultures ‒ in the upper Nile Valley. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 431-32) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ According to the Egyptologist Branislav Anđelković, previously autonomous agricultural villages began to band together to form 'chiefdoms' or 'proto-nomes' between Naqada IA and IB (a 'nome' was an administrative division in the later Egyptian state). §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 28) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ In Naqada IC, even larger political entities ‒ 'nome pre-states' ‒ started to form, centred on Naqada, Abydos and Hierakonpolis. It has been suggested that a 'primitive chiefdom' centred around a 'royal' authority based at Hierakonpolis, had formed by around 3700 BCE. §REF§ (García 2013, 187-88) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the Third Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power, Generating Authority: Cosmos, Politics, and the Ideology of Kingship in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by Jane A. Hill, Philip Jones, and Antonio J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ Not all researchers agree with this terminology, believing that it creates the impression of an inexorable march towards state formation, and some prefer to stress the fragile and experimental nature of early complex social formations in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422, 427) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ However, the term chiefdom remains in common usage as a label for the new ranked societies of the early 4th millennium. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Bard 2017, 2) Kathryn A. Bard. 2017. 'Political Economies of Predynastic Egypt and the Formation of the Early State'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 25: 1-36. §REF§ §REF§ (Koehler 2010, 32) E. Christiana Koehler. 2010. 'Prehistory', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 25-47. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In the Naqada II period, 'proto-states' formed, and by the Naqada III we can speak of kings and a centralized government ruling over a unified Upper and Lower Egypt. §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 29-30) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ <br>We lack firm figures for the population of Egypt during the Naqada. At the beginning of the period, most inhabitants of Upper Egypt were living in small villages. §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 28) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ However, as the 4th millennium progressed, archaeologists can discern a process of urbanization and aggregation into larger political units. The largest known settlement, Hierakonpolis, grew into a regional centre of power in the 3800‒3500 BCE period §REF§ (Friedman 2011, 34) Renée Friedman. 2011. 'Hierakonpolis', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 33-44. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ and may have reached a population of between 5,000 and 10,000 people in the late Naqada I. §REF§ (Hoffman, Hamroush and Allen 1986, 181) Michael Allen Hoffman, Hany A. Hamroush and Ralph O. Allen. 1986. 'A Model of Urban Development for the Hierakonpolis Region from Predynastic through Old Kingdom Times'. <i>Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i> 23: 175-87. §REF§ Other researchers consider this figure 'inflated' §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 436) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ and point to recent evidence from the Abydos region for low population numbers throughout the Predynastic period. §REF§ (Patch 2004, 914) Diana Craig Patch. 2004. 'Settlement Patterns and Cultural Change in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams</i>, edited by S. Hendrickx, R. F. Friedman, K. M. Ciałowicz and M. Chłodnicki, 905-18. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 203, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"The scene in the Late Predynastic (Gerzean) Painted Tomb in Hierakonpolis (Kantor, 1944), showing a person smiting enemies in a manner prototypical of that of the later Pharaoh (Baines, 1987), indicates that regional, paramount chiefs may have commanded warriors who were mobilized by district and community chiefs.\" §REF§(Hassan 1988, 172)§REF§<br>1. Chief<br>2. Warriors", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 2, "military_level_to": 2, "polity": { "id": 513, "name": "EgNaqa3", "start_year": -3300, "end_year": -3100, "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty 0", "new_name": "eg_naqada_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Naqada is a Predynastic archaeological culture located in Upper Egypt, the strip of land flanking the Nile river south of the Faiyum region and north of the First Cataract. Named after the site where British archaeologist Flinders Petrie uncovered a necropolis of over 3000 graves in the late 19th century, §REF§ (Midant-Reynes 2000, 41) Béatrix Midant-Reynes. 2000. 'The Naqada Period (c. 4000-3200 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 41-56. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ the Naqada culture is dated from around 3800 to 3100 BCE. §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 5) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society A</i> 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ The Naqada has been subdivided into three periods ‒ the Amratian, Gerzean, and Semainean ‒ as well as, more recently, into Naqada IA-C, IIA-D, and IIIA-D. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 424) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 2) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society A</i> 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ Seshat's 'Naqada 1' (3800-3550 BCE) corresponds to the Naqada IA-IIB phases; Naqada 2 (3550-3300 BCE) to IIC-IID; and Naqada 3 (3300-3100 BCE) to IIIA-IIIB. We end Naqada 3 with the IIIB-C transition, because the First Dynasty of the Egyptian state is considered to begin with the accession of King Aha in Naqada IIIC. §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 2) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society A</i> 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ Naqada III is also sometimes referred to as the Protodynastic period or 'Dynasty 0'.<br>Early Naqada archaeological material is clustered around the key sites of Naqada itself, Abydos, and Hierakonpolis (ancient Nekhen) in the fertile land nestled around the 'Qena bend' of the Nile. §REF§ (Bard 1994, 267) Kathryn A. Bard. 1994. 'The Egyptian Predynastic: A Review of the Evidence'. <i>Journal of Field Archaeology</i> 21 (3): 265-88. §REF§ However, from the late Naqada II onwards, there is an archaeologically visible expansion of the culture both southwards along the Nile and northwards into Lower Egypt (the Delta), eventually reaching as far north as the Levant in Naqada IIIA-B. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 442-43) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ <br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The 4th millennium BCE was a crucial period for Egyptian state formation. Prior to roughly 3800 BCE, Upper Egypt was inhabited by seasonally mobile farmers and herders, constituting an archaeological culture known as the Badarian. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422, 428-29) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ However, the Naqada periods brought a series of key social transformations to the region, including increasing inequality, a greater commitment to sedentary settlement and cereal farming, the emergence of full-time craft specialists, and, towards the end of the millennium, the invention of writing. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 431-32, 434) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Hendrickx 2011, 93) Stan Hendrickx. 2011. 'Crafts and Craft Specialization', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 93-98. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ §REF§ (Wengrow 2011, 99) David Wengrow. 2011. 'The Invention of Writing in Egypt', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 99-103. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ The growth of hierarchical social structures and the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt laid the foundations for the divine kings and complex bureaucracy of the Old Kingdom and beyond.<br>During Naqada I, new forms of political organization appeared ‒ relatively swiftly compared to other prehistoric cultures ‒ in the upper Nile Valley. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 431-32) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ According to the Egyptologist Branislav Anđelković, previously autonomous agricultural villages began to band together to form 'chiefdoms' or 'proto-nomes' between Naqada IA and IB (a 'nome' was an administrative division in the later Egyptian state). §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 28) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ In Naqada IC, even larger political entities ‒ 'nome pre-states' ‒ started to form, centred on Naqada, Abydos and Hierakonpolis. It has been suggested that a 'primitive chiefdom' centred around a 'royal' authority based at Hierakonpolis, had formed by around 3700 BCE. §REF§ (García 2013, 187-88) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the Third Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power, Generating Authority: Cosmos, Politics, and the Ideology of Kingship in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by Jane A. Hill, Philip Jones, and Antonio J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ Not all researchers agree with this terminology, believing that it creates the impression of an inexorable march towards state formation, and some prefer to stress the fragile and experimental nature of early complex social formations in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422, 427) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ However, the term chiefdom remains in common usage as a label for the new ranked societies of the early 4th millennium. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Bard 2017, 2) Kathryn A. Bard. 2017. 'Political Economies of Predynastic Egypt and the Formation of the Early State'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 25: 1-36. §REF§ §REF§ (Koehler 2010, 32) E. Christiana Koehler. 2010. 'Prehistory', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 25-47. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In the Naqada II period, 'proto-states' formed, and by the Naqada III we can speak of kings and a centralized government ruling over a unified Upper and Lower Egypt. §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 29-30) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ <br>We lack firm figures for the population of Egypt during the Naqada. At the beginning of the period, most inhabitants of Upper Egypt were living in small villages. §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 28) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ However, as the 4th millennium progressed, archaeologists can discern a process of urbanization and aggregation into larger political units. The largest known settlement, Hierakonpolis, grew into a regional centre of power in the 3800‒3500 BCE period §REF§ (Friedman 2011, 34) Renée Friedman. 2011. 'Hierakonpolis', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 33-44. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ and may have reached a population of between 5,000 and 10,000 people in the late Naqada I. §REF§ (Hoffman, Hamroush and Allen 1986, 181) Michael Allen Hoffman, Hany A. Hamroush and Ralph O. Allen. 1986. 'A Model of Urban Development for the Hierakonpolis Region from Predynastic through Old Kingdom Times'. <i>Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i> 23: 175-87. §REF§ Other researchers consider this figure 'inflated' §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 436) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ and point to recent evidence from the Abydos region for low population numbers throughout the Predynastic period. §REF§ (Patch 2004, 914) Diana Craig Patch. 2004. 'Settlement Patterns and Cultural Change in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams</i>, edited by S. Hendrickx, R. F. Friedman, K. M. Ciałowicz and M. Chłodnicki, 905-18. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 104, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"the military organization of the thirty curiae and three archaic tribes can perhaps best be dated to the period of Rome's early unification, during the second half of the seventh century B.C\".§REF§(Forsythe 2006, 115) Forsythe, Gary. 2006. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. University of California Press.§REF§ \"while the urban community at Rome may have begun to develop a distinct, community-based identity from the eighth century onwards, the gentilicial elite of Rome, even as late as the early sixth century, would probably be best characterized as simply 'Latin,' or possibily even 'central Italian'. The presence of this pan-central Italian gentilicial aristocracy would have had a dramatic impact on how Rome interracted with other Latin settlements as it may have blurred man of the assumed settlement-based divisions, particularly with regard to military matters, which seem to have been almost entirely under the purview of the more mobile gentilicial elite.\"§REF§(Armstrong 2016, 73) Armstrong, Jeremy. 2016. War and Society in Early Rome. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§ \"The reforms of Servius Tullius, as presented in the literary sources, represented a seismic shift in the organization of Roman society, changing not only how the early Roman army was recruited and equipped, but also the social, politicial, and possibly religious divisions of early Roman society.\"§REF§(Armstrong 2016, 75) Armstrong, Jeremy. 2016. War and Society in Early Rome. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>1. King<br><br>2. Leaders of the three tribesThree tribes: Tities, Ramnes, Luceres, each subdivided into 10 curiae, formed the basis of military organization. §REF§(Cornell 1995, 114)§REF§<br>3. Leaders of a curiaeThree tribes: Tities, Ramnes, Luceres, each subdivided into 10 curiae, formed the basis of military organization. §REF§(Cornell 1995, 114)§REF§<br>4. Individual soldier<br>1. King<br><br>2. Leaders of a centuryThe Centuriate organisation of Servius Tullius (578-534 BCE) had five categories based on wealth. Century was the basic unit. Each curia had 100 men. §REF§(Cornell 1995, 183)§REF§<br>3. Leaders of a curiae<br>4. Individual soldier", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 5, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "ItRomRg", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509, "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "new_name": "it_roman_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Regal Period refers to the period at the end of the Iron Age during which Rome developed as a uncleared settlement in the heart of Latium (modern-day Lazio), ruled over by 'Etruscan kings'. Although there is archaeological evidence for the permanent occupation of Rome from the Iron Age 'centuries before' the city's mythic foundation date of 754 BCE, §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 80) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ perhaps from as early as 1000 BCE, §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 72) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ we have chosen to begin this polity in 716, with the traditional death date of the city's legendary founder Romulus. §REF§ (Martin 2012, 42) Thomas R. Martin. 2012. <i>Ancient Rome: From Romulus to Justinian</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ The city prospered during this time, which saw the development of many of the institutions - political administration, legal system, religious practices - characteristic of the later Roman Republic. The last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (534-509 BCE), was expelled from Rome for his and his family's tyrannical excesses. In his place, the leading Roman elites established an aristocratic city-state, ushering in the Republican period. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 118, 120) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>By end of the Regal Period, Rome was a well-developed city-state, boasting civic infrastructure (marsh drainage, roads), political institutions (assemblies, Senate), monuments (temples), and a powerful military. It held at least one third of the area of Latium vetus (Old Latium) §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 205) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ and had a population of 20,000-50,000 people.<br>According to legend, Rome became a city when the eponymous founder Romulus slew his twin brother Remus, both outcasts from a nearby Latium settlement, in a contest over where to found their new city. Numa Pompilius (r. 715-673 BCE), of Sabine origin, was the next king. Pompilius is traditionally credited with establishing 'all the major religious institutions of the state, including the calendar and the priesthoods'. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 120) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ Starting with Tarquinius Priscus (r. 616-579 BCE), Rome was ruled by a series of kings of Etruscan descent, who could thus draw on the legacy of this powerful and complex culture from north-central Italy (around modern-day Etruria). The Roman king served as chief legislator, military commander, highest judge and chief priest. §REF§ (Adkins and Adkins 1998, 62) Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. 1998. <i>Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 252) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ Archaeological remains found on the Palatine Hill dating to the late 8th century BCE suggest that the king lived in a palace from the earliest times. Rome's relationship with other settlements in Latium, particularly on military matters, were important. §REF§ (Armstrong 2016, 73) Jeremy Armstrong. 2016. <i>War and Society in Early Rome</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The hereditary clan system (<i>gens</i>) formed the basis of the Roman nobility, §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 115) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ likely serving first as the king's advisors, although administrative structures gradually became more institutionalized (for example, through the establishment of a formal senate and voting assemblies) throughout the late 8th and 7th centuries BCE.<br>The city of Rome, with a population somewhere between 14,000 and 57,000 during this period, fared well in military and economic terms. Several kings claimed important victories over nearby settlements in Latium and Etruria, expanding Rome's sphere of influence and establishing economic connections throughout central Italy. The Via Salaria ('salt road') and the Sacra Via in Rome were in existence from the beginning of the Roman Kingdom §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 48, 96) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ - although at this time the roads would not have been paved. A port known as Caere was situated 50 kilometres northwest of Rome. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 128) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ The first bridge, thought to be the Pons Sublicius, may have been built in 642 BCE under Ancus Marcius. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 128) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ Roman kings also reclaimed marshland and carried out drainage works. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 164) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 257, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " EWA changed to 4 §REF§(Garcia ed. 2013, 422-425)§REF§§REF§(Manning 2012, 76)§REF§§REF§(<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/history12-17.htm#amenemheti\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/history12-17.htm#amenemheti</a>)§REF§§REF§(Fields 2007, 9)§REF§<br>The army became professionalized in the Middle Kingdom.§REF§(Van De Mieroop 2011, 105) Van De Mieroop, Marc. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Backwell. Chichester.§REF§<br>EWA: 4 King, 3 chief of the army/general (leads the expedition or the building project) ,2 officers ,1 soldiers<br>Spalinger §REF§(Spalinger 2013, 422-4)§REF§1. King<br>2. Crown Prince3. Chief of Army4. Provincial Governors (brought own troops with them)5. Town regiments6. Division Commander7. individual soldiers<br>1. King<br>2. Chief of the leaders of the town militia<br>3. Soldier of the town militia<br>2.Crew of the ruler<br>2. Chief of the leaders of the dog patrols<br>There were also \"scribe of the army.\"§REF§(Fields 2007, 5)§REF§<br>Alternative:<br>1. King<br>2. Chief of the army.<br>3. Provincial governors.<br>4. Generals (Overseers of the host).<br>5. Commanders of town militia.§REF§(Garcia ed. 2013, 422-425)§REF§<br>6. individual soldiers.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 7, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "EgMidKg", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700, "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "new_name": "eg_middle_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After a phase of decentralized state power during the Period of the Regions (or First Intermediate Period), Egypt became unified once again during the Middle Kingdom (Eleventh, Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasties, 2016‒1700 BCE), experiencing a 'golden age'. §REF§ (Callender 2000, 171) Gae Callender. 2000. 'The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (c. 2055-1650 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 137-71. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Achievements in art, architecture, writing and religion ‒ coupled with a growing 'middle class' and the increased importance of scribes ‒ reached their peak during this period, particularly under Amenemhat III (r. 1831‒1786 BCE). §REF§ (Callender 2000, 156) Gae Callender. 2000. 'The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (c. 2055-1650 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 137-71. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Middle Kingdom king ruled via royal decree, §REF§ (Ezzamel 2004, 502) Mahmoud Ezzamel. 2004. 'Work Organization in the Middle Kingdom, Ancient Egypt'. <i>Organization</i> 11 (4): 497-537. §REF§ but he and his officials were responsive to petitions from the people. We lack detailed information about the royal palace, although Stephen Quirke suggests that the terms <i>k3p</i> and <i>hnty</i> might refer to an inner and outer palace respectively. §REF§ (Pagliari 2012, 267-269) Giulia Pagliari. 2012. 'Function and Significance of Ancient Egyptian Royal Palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite Period: A Lexicographical Study and Its Possible Connection with the Archaeological Evidence'. PhD thesis, University of Birmingham. §REF§ The first Middle Kingdom capital was at Thebes in Upper Egypt, but was moved during the Twelfth Dynasty to El-Lisht at the neck of the Delta in Lower Egypt. From this new location, the monarchy exerted more centralized control over the country and expanded the bureaucratic system. §REF§ (Callender 2000, 146-47) Gae Callender. 2000. 'The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (c. 2055-1650 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 137-71. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Administrative reforms under Senusret III (r. 1878-1839 BCE) resulted in the reorganization of the provinces around 1860 BCE: 'the old system of hereditary nomarchs was destroyed and replaced by a bureaucratic machinery, the operators of which owed their allegiance to the king'. §REF§ (Ezzamel 2004, 502) Mahmoud Ezzamel. 2004. 'Work Organization in the Middle Kingdom, Ancient Egypt'. <i>Organization</i> 11 (4): 497-537. §REF§ §REF§ (Callender 2000, 163-64) Gae Callender. 2000. 'The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (c. 2055-1650 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 137-71. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ For the first time since the Classic Old Kingdom, the central state had become powerful enough to directly command all the regions of Egypt.<br>During the Middle Kingdom, the nome (province) of the Old Kingdom was replaced by a 'city district' centred on an urban complex and headed by a <i>hat-ya</i> ('mayor'). §REF§ (Haring 2010, 225) Ben Haring. 2010. 'Administration and Law: Pharaonic', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 218-36. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The mayors received orders from the central government, specifically the vizier, and were responsible for tax collection and supervising the royal domains. §REF§ (Haring 2010, 225) Ben Haring. 2010. 'Administration and Law: Pharaonic', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 218-36. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Thebes was the administrative centre for southern Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia. §REF§ (Quirke 2001, 16) Stephen G. J. Quirke. 2001. 'Administration: State Administration', in <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by D. B. Redford, 12-16. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The army was professional in the Middle Kingdom. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 105) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The king remained a divine ruler, legitimated as the guarantor and preserver of <i>maat</i>, the principle of harmony and cosmic order. §REF§ (Pu 2005, 86) Muzhou Pu. 2005. <i>Enemies of Civilization: Attitudes towards Foreigners in Ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China</i>. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Szpakowska 2010, 521) Kasia Szpakowska. 2010. 'Religion in Society: Pharaonic', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 507-25. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>Amenemhat III laid the foundations for a much larger Egyptian population (in his time, the country still had under two million inhabitants). §REF§ (Willems 2013, 343) Harco Willems. 2013. 'Nomarchs and Local Potentates: The Provincial Administration in the Middle Kingdom', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 341-92. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Using giant waterwheels and a canal from the Faiyum to the Nile, the Egyptians managed to improve irrigation in this fertile region and control flooding: a measure of sophisticated technology, strong central control, and a good deal of foresight. Another indication of the sophistication of Middle Kingdom technology is that the scribe responsible for the famed Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, dating to the Second Intermediate Period, noted that the work was copied from a Middle Kingdom original. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 134) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Literacy and a culture of storytelling were widespread: the Tale of the Eloquent Peasant, Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor, Story of Sinuhe, Account of the Sporting King, and many others represent the birth of written fiction in Egypt. §REF§ (Van Blerk 2006) N. J. Van Blerk. 2006. 'The Concept of Law and Justice in Ancient Egypt, with Specific Reference to The Tale of The Eloquent Peasant'. Master's dissertation, University of South Africa. Available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/2447/dissertation.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/2447/dissertation.pdf</a>. §REF§ The Tale of King Cheops' Court reveals a lively interest at this time in the history of Classic Old Kingdom Egypt. §REF§ (Enmarch 2010) Roland Enmarch. 2010. 'Middle Kingdom Literature', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 2</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 663-85. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 164, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " For the period of the Early Chalcolithic, we do not know of any specific conflicts between different social groups or cultures. We have no evidence of archaeological or historical warfare. However, the lack of such evidence does not mean we can exclude the potential of warfare taking place. The listed handheld weapons have been placed in the category of warfare because we have no archaeological evidence for the purposes for which they were used - whether they were used only for hunting or for hypothetical battles. PF: However, the presence of finds such as a large copper mace head from Can Hasan I, the removal and caching of plastered human skulls from Kösk Höyük suggest a socially competitive environment§REF§Arbuckle, B. S. \"Animals and inequality in Chalcolithic central Anatolia.\" Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 31.3 (2012): 303§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 2, "polity": { "id": 158, "name": "TrClcER", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -5500, "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Chalcolithic", "new_name": "tr_konya_eca", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 115, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " From the following references there seems to be at least four levels, general, chief, officer, soldier, but there may be more: officer of the royal guard, chief of rowers, military chief, and chief of elephants. \"Bhavavarman II is also a fleeting figure, but the inscriptions of his great grandson, Jayavarman I (c. AD 635-680), reflect significant consolidation of central authority. Their distribution centres on the lowlands on either side of the Mekong, with extensions into the rich rice lands of Battambang and on to the coast of Chantaburi. Their contents inform us on two vital issues. The first is the use of official titles, such as President of the ROyal Court, which was located at a centre call Purandapura. Another prescribed punishment for those who disobey a royal order. Two brothers of high social standing were appointed to a variety of posts: officer of the royal guard, chief of rowers, military chief, and governor of Dhruvapura. Another highly-ranked courtier became chief of elephants, reminding us of the traditional role of elephants in warfare. A further text mentions a chief of the royal grain store. These high officials were regarded with honorific symbols, such as a parasol embellished with gold. The trends already evident under Ishanavarman were greatly strengthen under his great grand son: with Jayavarman I, we can identify the establishment of a state. It was, however, ephemeral. §REF§(Higham 2002, 250-251)§REF§ \"Its authors state that in the time of Jayavarman II they had three ancestors on their mother's and her mother's side - two females and a male, presumably siblings, though this is not stated. The male was a general (senapati). §REF§(Vickery 1986, 104)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 4, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "KhChenl", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825, "long_name": "Chenla", "new_name": "kh_chenla", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "According to Chinese records, Chenla (also known as Zhenla) §REF§ (Miksic 2007, 426) John N. Miksic. 2007. <i>Historical Dictionary of Ancient Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ was the polity that ruled over much of mainland Southeast Asia after the decline of Funan. §REF§ (Southworth 2004, 324) William A. Southworth. 2004. 'Chenla', in <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopaedia</i>, edited by Keat Gin Ooi, 324-26. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. §REF§ As with Funan, this was likely not a unitary state, but rather a cluster of competing small city-states. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. <i>Antiquity</i> 88: 822-35. §REF§ These states occupied much of modern Cambodia and northwestern Thailand, with sites all across the Mekong River Basin, and particularly dense clusters just before the river's delta, in the Tonlé Sap region, and in the Upper Mun Valley. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. <i>Antiquity</i> 88: 822-35. §REF§ With respect to Chenla's chronological boundaries, many authors date its beginning to the mid-6th century, §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. <i>Antiquity</i> 88: 822-35. §REF§ that is, at the beginning of Funan's century-long decline. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 60-61) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ This is the chronology we follow, although it is worth noting that, according to the Chinese records, Chenla only conquered Funan in the 7th century. §REF§ (Miksic 2007, 426-27) John N. Miksic. 2007. <i>Historical Dictionary of Ancient Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ The Chenla era came to a close at the turn of the the 9th century with the beginning of the Angkor period, traditionally dated from Jayavarman II's coronation ceremony in 802 CE. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 254) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ <br>Population and political organization<br>Although Chenla was probably a cluster of competing centres rather than a unitary polity, inscriptions suggest that there was an overall political hierarchy, at the top of which sat a <i>vrah kamraten</i>, that is, most likely, a deified ruler §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. <i>Antiquity</i> 88: 822-35. §REF§ Below this ruler, there was a series of elite ranks whose relationship to each other is not always clear, though no rank was higher than that of <i>pura</i>. §REF§ (Vickery 1998, 24) Michael Vickery. 1998. <i>Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries</i>. Chicago: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies. §REF§ At the local level, <i>poñ</i> (settlement chiefs) exercised their authority over individual temples, which were important economic as well as ritual centres for their sustaining populace. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831-32) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. <i>Antiquity</i> 88: 822-35. §REF§ <br>No overall population estimates could be found in the literature, but the largest settlement probably housed over 20,000 families, §REF§ (Higham 2014, 293) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ and Chinese records describe Chenla as 'a wealthy and militarily powerful country with over 30 cities'. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 60) Michael Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. London: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-08T12:55:13.437877Z", "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 42, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 151, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Inferred.<br>1. Emir<br>2. Landed elite<br>3. Common soldiers<br>The ruling Arab elite had access to both a transplanted Arab military hierarchy and local structures for military ranking. However, in terms of actual structures the evidence is very slim. It can be tentatively posited that the ruling power in Masura had a degree of permanent command as the state was involved in endemic military conflicts with bordering non-Muslim peoples as well as the Muslim Jat and non Muslim Med tribes in the Indus delta. There is also evidence of the presence the state possessing 80 elephants and around 40,000 soldiers during the Habari period. The Soomras did not seem to have had access to elephants, but did have access to large numbers of cavalry. §REF§Panhwar, M. H. \"Chronological Dictionary of Sind, (Karachi, 1983) pp. 192-3, 196-197§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "polity": { "id": 133, "name": "PkSind1", "start_year": 854, "end_year": 1193, "long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period", "new_name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. <i>Arts Asiatiques</i> 32: 29-70. §REF§ The region it is part of, Sindh (also known as Sind), was a vital tribute paying territory of the Arab empire, first under the Ummayad and then the Abbasid Caliphates. However, in 836 CE, the Abbasid Caliphate lost control of its western territories, and Sind plunged into a civil war. §REF§ (Panwhar 1983, 178-179) M.H. Panwhar. 1983. <i>Chronological Dictionary of Sindh</i>. Karachi: Institute of Sindology. §REF§ Here we consider the period going from the middle of the ninth century, when the Habari lineage became rulers of an independent Sind, to the middle of the thirteenth, when the Samma dynasty seized power. Throughout these centuries, Sind experienced a peaceful power transition from the Habari to the Soomra, in 1010, annexation to the Delhi Sultanate, and a long civil war caused by political instability resulting from Mongol invasions. §REF§ (Panwhar 1983, 19-33, 188, 293-294) M.H. Panwhar. 1983. <i>Chronological Dictionary of Sindh</i>. Karachi: Institute of Sindology. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Panwhar believes that the population of Sind at this time is unlikely to have exceeded one million. §REF§ (Panwhar 1983, 189) M.H. Panwhar. 1983. <i>Chronological Dictionary of Sindh</i>. Karachi: Institute of Sindology. §REF§ As for political organization, the polity was ruled by an emir, who delegated power over regions and districts to specially appointed governors, who were closely related to the emir himself. §REF§ (Panwhar 2003, 134) M.H. Panwhar. 2003. <i>An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh</i>. Karachi: Sangam Publications. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 38, "name": "Pakistan", "subregions_list": "Pakistan", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 83, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Like the Achaemenids, the Sasanids likely used the decimal system to organize the Spah (army). The title Hazarmard/Hazarbad means \"chief of a thousand.\"<br>The reforms of Khosrau I removed the Commander-in-Chief (Eran-Spahbad) and divided the empire into four regions, each under the control of a regional field marshal (Spahbads).§REF§(Farrokh 2005, 3-27) Farrokh, Kevah. 2005. Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224-642. Osprey Publishing.§REF§ Khusrau I (later Sassanid period) changed the command structure. \"Previously the entire army had been under the command of an officer known as the spahbad. Now, four commanders were appointed, each in charge of the troops of one-quarter of the country. Each of these newly created commanders had a deputy called a marzban.\"§REF§(Chegini 1996, 57) Chegini, N. N. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf§REF§<br>1. King<br>2. Royal Guard (1,000, commanded by a Pushtighban-Salar)<br>2. Great commander (Vuzurg-Framander. Managed state affairs whilst monarch on military expedition).<br>2. Four regional Spahbads (field marshals)3. Marzban4. Gund (large regular division, lead by Gund-Salar, a general) - Marzban is another term for a general who took orders from a Spahbad5. Immortals (10,000, commanded by a Varthragh-Nighan Khuadhay)6. Drafsh (known to be a unit of 1,000 soldiers) - Is this the level of the Framandar, battlefield commander?7. Vasht (small company)(8. Unit of 10 soldiers?)9. Individual soldier<br>Other units:§REF§(Farrokh 2005, 3-27) Farrokh, Kevah. 2005. Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224-642. Osprey Publishing.§REF§<br>Saravan (Commanded by an Aspbad and a Sadar)", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 7, "military_level_to": 9, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "IrSasn2", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642, "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "new_name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "In the final Sassanid period (488-642 CE), best known for the reign of Khusrau I, the Sassanid realm was managed through provincial governors called Shahr §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ and vassal kings appointed by the Sassanid King of Kings. Its population peaked at about 22 million at around 600 CE a time when the Empire was disintegrating.<br>The long reigns of Kavad I (499-531 CE) and Khusrau I (531-579 CE) saw many reforms, such as to the tax system and the military. Khusrau I is credited with wise leadership and is known as \"Plato's philosopher king.\" §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 27-37) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ Khusrau I (531-579 CE) promoted minor nobility to official positions and reduced the power of aristocrats, placing tax collection in the hands of officials directly under his own control. §REF§ (Chegini 1996, 47) N N Chegini. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ Khusrau I also made some important structural reforms to the military which removed the Commander-in-Chief (Eran-Spahbad) and divided the empire into four regions, each under the control of a regional field marshal (Spahbads). §REF§ (Farrokh 2005, 3-27) Kevah Farrokh. 2005. Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224-642. Osprey Publishing. §REF§ This change enabled the Sassanids to more quickly respond to the external threats of invasion.<br>After the high point of Khusrau I internal instability became the norm and the ruling dynasty had almost wiped itself out by the time the Arabs conquered the last Sassanid stronghold at Persis in 650 CE. Hamizid IV (579-590 CE), who followed Khosrau I killed many of the nobility and was harsh to the priests. Hormizd IV was deposed 589-590 CE by his generals and the nobility who put on the throne his son, Khusrau II. §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 199) Touraj Daryaee. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Kushrau II was himself deposed by nobility and priests in 628 CE. §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 200) Touraj Daryaee. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Kavad II (628-630 CE) conducted a fratricide, killing all the male heirs in the Sasanid family, and was assassinated. §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 31) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 308, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " No information found in sources.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": null, "military_level_to": null, "polity": { "id": 447, "name": "FrBeakr", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2000, "long_name": "Beaker Culture", "new_name": "fr_beaker_eba", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "In the late 3rd millennium BCE, new forms of material culture spread across the former megalithic zone of Neolithic Europe. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 55) McIntosh, J. 2006. <i>Handbook to Life in Prehistoric Europe.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B5R92FJH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B5R92FJH</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 250) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. \"The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC.\" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) <i>The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe</i>: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 252) Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Janusz Kruk. 2002. “Late Neolithic Crises, Collapse, New Ideologies, and Economies, 3500/3000-2200/2000 BC.” In European Prehistory: A Survey, edited by Sarunas Milisauskas, 247-69. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ</a>. §REF§ The Beaker, or Bell-Beaker, §REF§ (Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 248) Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Janusz Kruk. 2002. “Late Neolithic Crises, Collapse, New Ideologies, and Economies, 3500/3000-2200/2000 BC.” In European Prehistory: A Survey, edited by Sarunas Milisauskas, 247-69. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ</a>. §REF§ phenomenon is named after a characteristic drinking vessel, which had an inverted bell shape and was decorated with incisions. §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 250-251) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. \"The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC.\" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) <i>The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe</i>: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM</a>. §REF§ Other features of this cultural 'package' include individual burials in round mounds, sets of weapons and metals, and other precious items. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ <br>The phenomenon started in what is now the Netherlands and expanded into Britain, Brittany, southern Spain and then into most of continental France, Belgium, Switzerland and Western Europe in the form of small pockets of activity. §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 246) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. \"The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC.\" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) <i>The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe</i>: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 214) Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Janusz Kruk. 2002. “Late Neolithic Crises, Collapse, New Ideologies, and Economies, 3500/3000-2200/2000 BC.” In European Prehistory: A Survey, edited by Sarunas Milisauskas, 247-69. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Beaker society was organized into myriad stratified polities of varying sizes. Some were composed of small, dispersed communities with 10 to 20 domestic units, §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 25) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ but larger groups could gather into fortified settlements: Los Millares in Spain was home to 1000-1500 people. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ The Beaker culture is also associated with demographic growth in Europe, as the small-scale polities moved into previously marginal lands. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ <br>The spread of this material culture has been interpreted as evidence for a wide set of circulation networks, fuelled by elite demand for prestige goods. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ The items may have been exchanged on the occasion of social rituals consolidating the power of emerging leaders. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ In this interpretation, the archaeologically visible spread of Beaker culture would not be tied to immigration but to the emergence of mobile ways of life, §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 250-251) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. \"The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC.\" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) <i>The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe</i>: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM</a>. §REF§ with independent leaders affirming their belonging to a wider cultural sphere through the consumption and display of valuable items. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ <br>Beaker people built on the legacy of their early Neolithic predecessors, reusing and modifying ceremonial structures such as Stonehenge. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 28) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ However they distinguished themselves through their burial customs, preferring single burials in grave pits to passage and gallery graves. In certain areas, such as the Iberian Peninsula or southern France, they occasionally reused ancient megalithic structures. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 28-29) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-04-15T15:39:50.374042Z", "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 99, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Pope; cardinals and other ecclesiastical officials appointed to command armies; mercenary commanders and corps commander; unit commanders; rank and file troops<br>1. Pope<br>2. Cardinals and other ecclesiastical officials appointed to command armies<br>3. mercenary commanders and corps commander<br>4. Unit commanders<br>5. Rank and file troops.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "polity": { "id": 193, "name": "ItPapM2", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1809, "long_name": "Papal States - Medieval Period II", "new_name": "it_papal_state_4", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The papacy was victorious in the Second War of Castro (1649). This was only the denouement of a minor episode, however, and in general the Papal State was a political fossil, undertaking no reforms in the spirit of the Enlightenment, and increasingly irrelevant to European affairs. §REF§ (Symcox 2002, 118) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ <br>The first part of this period marked the definitive eclipse of the papacy as a power of any reckoning in international relations. Pope Urban VIII had annexed the Duchy of Urbino to the Papal States in 1631, thereby alienating the papacy from the other Italian powers. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 9-10) Dominc Sella. 1997. <i>Italy in the Seventeeth Century.</i> London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The first war of Castro broke out in 1641 when Urban declared war on the Farnese, the ruling family of Parma, over the poor finances of Castro, a small fiefdom held by the Farnese just north of Rome. Tuscany, Modena and Venice joined the Farnese to resist the papacy, and inflicted humiliating defeats on the papal armies. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 10) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ In 1644, the French imposed a peace settlement. Although Pope Innocent X's troops took Castro and razed it to the ground in 1649, the papacy was now isolated internationally and increasingly irrelevant. The papacy took no part in the Peace of Westphalia, and it was also not consulted in the Franco-Spanish Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). §REF§ (Sella 1997, 11) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The papacy took no part in European wars for the rest of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.<br>The papacy's irrelevance internationally can be seen as part of the decline of the Spanish empire, as had benefited from Spanish protection during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 219-232) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. \"The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome.\" In <i>Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.</i>Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§ The French came to dominate European affairs during the reign of Louis XIV, but the struggle for power in Europe did not seriously affect the Papal State until the turn of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Warfare ravaged the peninsula in the early eighteenth century, as the (Austrian) Habsburgs and French Bourbons battled to fill the vacuum created by Spain's gradual eclipse. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 29) S J Woolf. 1979. <i>A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change.</i> 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§ These wars were external events imposed on the Italian states, and they took as little part as possible. Spanish attempts to recruit troops at Rome in the 1730s were met by serious riots, for example. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 35) S J Woolf. 1979. <i>A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change.</i> 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§ The War of the Austrian Succession devastated areas of the Marches and Romagna, but the papacy, it seems, was powerless to prevent foreign armies' depredations. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 35) S J Woolf. 1979. <i>A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change.</i> 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§ <br>As the eighteenth century progressed, this weakness, even impotence, became ever more marked. Clement XI in 1720 and Clement XII called for an Italian league to expel northern rulers, but these appeals were meaningless because the papacy controlled no armies worth speaking of. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 37) S J Woolf. 1979. <i>A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change.</i> 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§ Thus, international relations between the papacy and the European powers during the later 18th century consisted of papal resistance to European states' attempts to restrain the power of the Church. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 68) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ This took its characteristic form in the French and Spanish expulsion of the Jesuit Order from their domains; in 1773, Pope Clement XIV suppressed the order. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 40) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ As a reward, the French restored Avignon and the Spanish Benevento to the papacy. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 42) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ <br>The papacy opposed the French Revolution from the beginning, and by 1792, there was a schism in France between Catholics who supported the Church sanctioned by the Revolutionary regime, and those who remained faithful to Rome. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 80) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ Pius VI sympathized with the Habsburgs and the revolutionary regime's enemies, and his successor was powerless in the face of Bonaparte's 1796 invasion of the peninsula. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 80-81) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ Indeed, the papal ambassador Zelada's reply to British requests for papal approval of the war against the French was the following: §REF§ (Hay 1975, 98) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ \"'It is true that there was a time when the voice of the Roman Pontiff was heard, respected, and obeyed; now...it is scarcely listened ever listened to, and never has any effect.'\" Although the British fleet had briefly protected the Papal States' coasts from the French, by 1796 the British had withdrawn. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 98) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ Napoleon did not initially invade the Papal States proper, only the Legation cities of Ravenna, Bologna, and Ferrara; in the following peace treaty, the French annexed Ravenna, Bologna, Ancona, and the right of entry to all papal ports. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 99) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ The papacy furthermore had to pay Napoleon 21 million crowns. War recommenced in 1797, and Bonaparte marched almost unopposed down the eastern coast of the peninsula, stealing whatever the papal government had not yet removed of the treasury at Loreto and forcing terms on the papacy at Tolentino in mid-February. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 101) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ Refusing to acquiesce in French domination, Pius VI was arrested in February 1798 and bundled off to prison in Valence, France.<br>The second half the 1600s was marked by a renewal of \"Christianization\" efforts, i.e., to educate the laity and ensure a stricter adherence to post-Tridentine Catholicism. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 106-115) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The wars, famines, and epidemics between 1610 and the mid-1650s had disrupted these efforts, but there was a \"Tridentine revival\" in the second half of the century resulting in Jesuit missions to the Kingdom of Naples, and more frequent pastoral visits by bishops. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 107) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The Inquisition, which had been institutionalized as the Roman Inquisition in the sixteenth century, was still active, although it may not have burnt as many heretics and witches as authorities north of the Alps. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 160) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The Inquisition censored books, although it was not necessarily successful at preventing their spread. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 160) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ Pilgrimage remained popular, especially in Jubilee years (in this period, 1725, 1750, and 1775), and confraternities showed remarkable staying power, especially in the duchy of Benevento and the kingdom of Naples. Baptism and the Mass remained little changed, although parish records became a standard part of the Church's institutional machinery.<br>The seventeenth century was a period of major demographic and economic contraction, but by the mid-18th century, recovery had begun. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 47) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. <i>Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789.</i> Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ Gross has estimated that in 1684, the Papal States' trade and payment deficit was five million <i>scudi</i>; in 1786, the Papal States' imports exceeded their exports by three times. §REF§ (Gross 1990, 88) Gross, Hanns. <i>Rome in the Age of Enlightenment: The post-Tridentine syndrome and the ancien regime.</i> Cambridge, CUP. §REF§ Rome remained what it had long been, a parasitic drain on the Agro Romano. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 15) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. <i>Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789.</i> Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ The city consisted of a small plutocracy and a vast mass of artisans, courtiers, workers, and a major substratum of the permanently indigent; pilgrims added to the city's population and its coffers periodically. Ancona, on the other hand, experienced revived prosperity in the mid-18th century following Clement XII's decree making it a free port. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 16) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. <i>Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789.</i> Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ Bologna's economy was in decline due to the implosion of the textile trade. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 16) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. <i>Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789.</i> Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ An important contribution to the future demographic and economic health of Lazio was the draining of the Pontine Marshes, carried out under Popes Benedict XIV, Clement XIII, and Pius VI. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 48) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. <i>Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789.</i> Trans. Caroline Higgit. 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