Military Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Military Levels.
GET /api/sc/military-levels/?ordering=polity
{ "count": 364, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/military-levels/?ordering=polity&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 62, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "1. Amir al-mu' minin (official title of the Caliph)<br>2. Amir (commander or governor of a province or army)<br>3. Qa-id (military officer)<br>4. Arif (leader of a militay unit of ten to fifteen soldiers)<br>5. Muquatila(Muslim soldiers paid a salary); Malwa(rank and file Turkish soldier)<br>6. Arrarun (irregular volunteers) §REF§Kennedy, The Armies of the Caliphate pp. 209-210§REF§<br>The above estimate is an oversimplification. The Shurta (police) and the Haras (guards) were responsible for the securing the capital and the security of the Caliph. §REF§Kennedy, Hugh N. The Court of the Caliphs,(London, 2004) p.49§REF§ In the earlier period the Caliphate relied on the service of Arab tribes from Arabia. As the empire expanded this system changed to a professional standing army paid for in cash. Given the fractured nature of the military structure this ranking system is not fully representative. By 833 CE, two totally separate military establishments existed under the caliphs. Shakiriya were entire tribal groups serving under their chiefs, and the second were Ghilman, slave soldiers serving in regiments. Each of these had separate hierarchies. Each of these also their own internal structures with soldiers recruited from Syria using older Byzantine ranks, whereas mercenary tribes recruited from North Africa or Central Asia served under their clan leaders. There were also differences depending of where the individuals were serving. Permanent garrisons differed from temporary soldiers used for a campaign. From 833 CE, Turkic tribesmen became increasingly integral to the military of the Caliphate. By 936 CE, the Caliph lost even the pretext of military authority. §REF§Kennedy, Armies of the Caliphs pp. 118-147§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "polity": { "id": 132, "name": "IqAbbs1", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946, "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "new_name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "In 750 CE, following a revolt, Abbasid rulers took power from the Umayyad Dynasty under Abu al-'Abbas al-Saffah. To secure his rule, Abu al-'Abbass al-Saffah sought to destroy the male line descending from Fatima and Ali, §REF§ (Zayzafoon 2005, 139) Lamia Ben Youssef Zayzafoon. 2005. <i>The Production of the Muslim Woman: Negotiating Text, History, and Ideology</i>. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. §REF§ and had about 300 members of the Umayyad family killed. §REF§ (Uttridge and Spilling, eds. 2014, 186) S. Uttridge and M. Spilling, eds. 2014. <i>The Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare</i>. London: Amber Books. §REF§ The last 80 Umayyads were tricked into attending a banquet with their hosts in Damascus and massacred there. §REF§ (Schwartzwald 2015, 24) Jack L. Schwartzwald. 2016. <i>The Collapse and Recovery of Europe, AD 476-1648</i>. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. §REF§ (One twenty-year-old prince, Abd al-Rahman, famously managed to escape this fate: he dodged assassins all the way to Spain, where he founded an Umayyad Emirate). The First Abbasid Caliphate Period ended in 946 CE when the Daylamite Buyids from northwestern Iran reduced the caliph to a nominal figurehead. Ironically, given the bloody manner in which the dynasty began, the final Abbasid caliph was rolled up in his own carpet and trampled to death by Mongol horsemen in 1258 CE. §REF§ (Kennedy 2001, 164) Hugh N. Kennedy. 2001. <i>The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ The zenith of the Abbasid period is considered to be the reign of Harun al Rashid (763-809 CE), whose rule is described in <i>The Thousand and One Nights</i>. §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 699) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The capital of the Abbasid Caliphate eventually settled at Baghdad, but in the earlier years the central administration was run from Kufa (750-762 CE), Al-Raqqah (796-809 CE), Merv (810-819 CE), §REF§ (Starr 2013, xxxii) S. Frederick Starr. 2013. <i>Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ and Samarra (836-870 CE). §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 53-54) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 106) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Abbasid caliph, spiritual leader of the Sunni Muslim world and commander-in-chief of its army, left the day-to-day administration to his vizier and heads of the diwans in the complex bureaucracy.<br>The departments were divided into three main areas of responsibility: the chancery (<i>diwan-al-rasa'il</i>); tax collection (<i>diwan al-kharif</i>); and army administration (<i>diwan al-jaysh</i>). §REF§ (Kennedy 2001, 60-66) Hugh N. Kennedy. 2001. <i>The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ Professional officials and soldiers were paid both in cash and in kind. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 250) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The task of organizing the 'collection and payment of revenues' fell to the Abbasid military. §REF§ (Kennedy 2001, 21) Hugh N. Kennedy. 2001. <i>The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ However, while it was a professional institution, it lacked a rigid hierarchy or a well-defined officer class. §REF§ (Kennedy 2001, 21) Hugh N. Kennedy. 2001. <i>The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ Below the caliph himself, the top military rulers were the provincial governors in Iraq, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Syria, Western Iran and Khuzistan. In Iraq and Egypt, local government was divided into a hierarchy of districts, with subdivisions (<i>kura</i>, <i>tassuj</i> and <i>rustaq</i>) used for assessing taxation, which was passed to the governor. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 61) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Within the Abbasid Caliphate there were also relatively independent vassals, who were required to pay tribute to the central government at Baghdad. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 61) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The law code was based largely on <i>sharia</i> law and the <i>ijma' </i>(legal opinions of religious scholars). §REF§ (Zubaida 2005, 74-84) Sami Zubaida. 2005. <i>Law and Power in the Islamic World</i>. London: I. B. Tauris. §REF§ <br>The Abbasid state provided centres of medical care, built ornate public markets, often with drinking fountains, and furnished welfare for the poor. §REF§ (Pickard 2013, 431) John Pickard. 2013. <i>Behind the Myths: The Foundations of Judaism, Christianity and Islam</i>. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§ As paper technology diffused from China, libraries became a common fixture in the cities of the caliphate. In Baghdad, the Khizanat al-Hikma, or 'treasury of wisdom', became a refuge for scholars, providing access to a large collection as well as free lodgings and board. §REF§ (Bennison 2009, 180) Amira K. Bennison. 2009. <i>The Great Caliphs: The Golden Age of the Abbasid Empire</i>. London: I. B. Tauris. §REF§ Each important city included an official called the <i>saheb al-sorta</i>, who was responsible for maintaining public order, and the <i>amir al-suq</i>, in charge of regulating the bazaar. §REF§ (Lambton 2011) Ann K. S. Lambton. 2011. 'Cities iii: Administration and Social Organization', in <i>Encyclopedia Iranica</i> V/6, 607-23; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a> (accessed 2 April 2017). §REF§ <br>The territory possessed by the caliphate was lost in dramatic fashion, shrinking from 11.1 million square kilometres in 750 CE, to 4.6 million around 850 CE, to just 1 million square kilometres half a century later as Egypt, Afghanistan and Central Asia were all lost. §REF§ Christopher Chase-Dunn 2001, personal communication. §REF§ Nevertheless, in 900 CE the core region of Abbasid control in the Middle East still had a substantial population of about 10 million people. §REF§ (Blankinship 1994, 37-38) Khalid Y. Blankinship. 1994. <i>The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads</i>. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. §REF§ Over 300,000 (or maybe 900,000) of these lived in Baghdad, §REF§ Christopher Chase-Dunn 2001, personal communication. §REF§ which by this date had probably outgrown Byzantine Constantinople.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 62, "name": "Mesopotamia", "subregions_list": "Iraq, Kuwait", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 63, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels.<br>Based on data for preceding polities at least 5 levels.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 6, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "IqAbbs2", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258, "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "new_name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Second Abbasid Period (1191-1258 CE) was mostly remarkable for the city of Baghdad which is usually estimated to have had about 1 million inhabitants at the time of the Mongol sack in 1258 CE.<br>With the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258 CE \"the culture, science and learning for which Baghdad had been known for centuries simply disappeared in a period of a week.\" §REF§ (DeVries 2014, 209) Kelly DeVries in Morton, N. John, S. eds. 2014. Crusading and Warfare in the Middle Ages: Realities and Representations. Essays in Honour of John France. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. §REF§ The city was defended by a garrison of just 10,000 soldiers. §REF§ (DeVries 2014, 207) Kelly DeVries in Morton, N. John, S. eds. 2014. Crusading and Warfare in the Middle Ages: Realities and Representations. Essays in Honour of John France. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. §REF§ <br>In 1200 CE the Abbasids held Iraq and part of western Iran south of the Caspian, the territories holding perhaps 3.9 million inhabitants. The governance system was still Perso-Islamic with a vizier chief bureaucrat who oversaw government departments. §REF§ (Shaw 1976, 5) Stanford J Shaw. 1976. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The reign of al-Nasir (1180-1225 CE) was notable for being absolutely repressive \"the caliph's spies were so efficient and the caliph himself so ruthless that a man hardly dared to speak to his own wife in the privacy of his home.\" §REF§ (Bray 2015, xxi) Shawkat M Toorawa ed. 2015. Consorts of the Caliphs: Women and the Court of Baghdad. NYU Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 62, "name": "Mesopotamia", "subregions_list": "Iraq, Kuwait", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 66, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Decimal system. §REF§(Carey, Allfree and Cairns 2006, 34)§REF§<br>1. King<br>2. General3. myriad (10 hazaraba)4. hazaraba (1000 men)5. sataba (100 men)6. dathaba (10 men)7. Individual soldier<br>Supreme Commander of the spāda. Baivarapati of the Corps. Hazārapati of the division. θatapati of the battalion. Daθapati of the company. §REF§<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/History/hakhamaneshian/achaemenid_army.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">[13]</a>§REF§<br>Top position in the army was the commander of the royal guards, the hazārapati or chiliarch. Reputed to be second in power only to the king, this position may have functioned as a prime minister but little evidence supports this idea.§REF§(Schmitt 1983<a class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty#pt2\" rel=\"nofollow\">[14]</a>)§REF§<br>In Egypt \"Garrison commanders were usually Persian, but the garrison commander of the Hermopolite nome during the fifteenth year of Darius' reign was Egyptian.\"§REF§(Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 7, "military_level_to": 7, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "IrAchae", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331, "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "new_name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Achaemenid Empire was established by Cyrus II 'the Great', who inherited the small kingdom of Persia (named after the capital city, Persis) in southwest Iran, a vassal territory of the larger Median Empire to the Northwest. From 553 to 550 BCE, Cyrus led his fellow Persians against Median hegemony (even though the Medes were ruled by his own relatives), establishing the Persians as the dominant group in Iran. His kingdom became known as the Achaemenid Empire after the legendary first King of Persia, Achaemenes, claimed to be an ancestor of the Great Cyrus himself (Achaemenid essentially translates to 'children of Achaemenes'). §REF§ (Briant [1996] 2002) Pierre Briant. [1996] 2002. <i>From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire</i>, translated by Peter T. Daniels. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. §REF§ <br>Capitalizing on these early victories, Cyrus II the Great continued his military domination, conquering the wealthy Lydian Kingdom in modern-day Turkey along with most of Asia Minor and the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom in Mesopotamia, as well as consolidating Persia's hold over much of central Asia as far as modern Pakistan. His son and heir, Cambyses II, continued this tradition, expanding Achaemenid rule into the large and wealthy kingdom of Egypt. After Cambyses II's death in 522 BCE, a noble Persian named Darius came to power after overthrowing an alleged usurper to the throne (Gautama, supposedly posing as Cyrus II's son Bardiya, more commonly known by his Greek name Smerdis). §REF§ (Shayegan 2006) M. Rahim Shayegan. 2006. 'Bardiya and Gaumata: An Achaemenid Enigma Reconsidered'. <i>Bulletin of the Asia Institute</i> (n.s.) 20: 65-76. §REF§ Darius I, who also took the title of 'the Great', was a powerful ruler who inaugurated several military, administrative, and economic reforms, §REF§ (Cook 1983) J. M. Cook. 1983. <i>The Persian Empire</i>. London: J. M. Dent and Sons. §REF§ though is most well known for leading the Persian army to defeat at the hands of a coalition of small Greek city-states during the famous Persian Wars of the early 5th century BCE. Despite the fact that Darius' son and heir Xerxes I (the Great) also failed to conquer the Greek Aegean and lost a decisive battle to the same outnumbered coalition of Greeks, the Achaemenid Empire remained intact. §REF§ (de Souza 2003) Philip de Souza. 2003. <i>The Greek and Persian Wars, 499-386 BC</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ <br>In 330 BCE, Darius III became the twelfth and final emperor in the Achaemenid line when he succumbed to the conquests of Alexander the Great and his invading Macedonian army (twelfth not including the alleged usurper Bardiya/Smerdis nor the short-lived Artaxerxes V, who declared himself emperor for a brief moment after Darius III was killed as Alexander was completing his conquest). §REF§ (Kuhrt 2001, 94) Amelie Kuhrt. 2001. 'The Achaemenid Persian Empire (c. 550 - c. 330 BCE): Continuities, Adaptations, Transformations', in <i>Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History</i>, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla M. Sinopoli, 93-123. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Alexander became the ruler of all the territory formerly held by the Persians, incorporating it into the massive, though short-lived, Macedonian Empire and bringing an end to the great Persian Achaemenid Empire.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Achaemenid Empire was one of the largest empires in the pre-modern world, stretching nearly 6 million square kilometres across the Near East, Central Asia, the Indus Valley, Middle East, and into Egypt at its greatest extent. §REF§ (Broodbank 2015, 583) Cyprian Broodbank. 2015. <i>The Making of the Middle Sea</i>. London: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ It was a massive, multi-ethnic society made up of Medes, Persians, Lydians, Greeks, Egyptians, Babylonians, Bactrians, Sogdians, and numerous other cultural-ethnic groups; indeed, Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian, Aramaic, hieroglyphic Egyptian, and Greek were all used in royal and provincial communication. §REF§ (Shahbazi 2012, 135) A. Shapour Shahbazi. 2012. 'The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE)', in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History</i>, edited by Touraj Daryaee, 120-41. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Between the Great rulers Cyrus II, Cambyses II, and Darius I, the Persians had stitched together an empire out of the centres of the oldest civilizations from Anatolia to Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Indus valley. Persepolis and the grand Pasargadae were large ceremonial and ritual centres in the heartland of Persia, while Susa in western Iran was the major administrative capital. At its peak under Darius I, the empire covered a huge swathe of diverse territory from the eastern Mediterranean all the way to the Indus Valley, incorporating navigable seas and rivers, protected ports and fertile agricultural land as well as rough mountainous passes. This territory held a population of between 17 and 35 million people. §REF§ (Wiesehöfer 2009) Josef Wiesehöfer. 2009. 'The Achaemenid Empire', in <i>The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium</i>, edited by Ian Morris and Walter Scheidel, 66-98. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 317, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "levels. Five known levels, but might be more. Needs confirmation by an expert King - “It appears that at that stage there were two contending political factions in Adal, with different views about relations with Christian Ethiopia. The Walasma king Muhammad (c. 1488-1518) led the moderate party, which apparently favoured a policy of coexistence. This was strongly opposed by the militant group led by his general, Mahfūz, who preferred to continue the old tradition of conflict, and who actually aimed at the effective restoration of Muslim control over the eastern frontier provinces of Ifat, Fetegar, Dawaro, and Bali.” §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 166) Tamrat, Taddesse.2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list §REF§ General/imām/amīr/garad - “ Precisely at the time when the Ethiopian throne was occupied by a series of under-aged princes, Adal was in the most capable hands of a powerful general called Mahfūz, who had dominated the political scene in Adal since the 1480s and who is variously given the title of imām, amīr, and garad.” §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 166) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list §REF§ Cavalry - “Reference has already been made to the campaigns of Fanu’el in Adal which ended up in the Christian army’s being routed by the followers of Garad Abun, among whom Ahmad was still a junior cavalry officer.” §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 176) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list §REF§ Knights - “Among the defiant troops who fought against Abū Bakr, there was a young man, Ahmad Ibrāhīm al Ghāzī, who was originally a knight in the service of Garad Abun.” §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 168) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list §REF§ Army Soldiers - “There seems to be no doubt now that the new Walasma rulers of the Harar plateau began to annex extensive Somali tribal areas to the east and south-east. The Somali interior of the Horn was used by them as an inexhaustible source of manpower for their growing army, which was always kept active in the perennial frontier clashes with the Christian empire.” §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 153) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 8, "polity": { "id": 637, "name": "so_adal_sultanate", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1543, "long_name": "Adal Sultanate", "new_name": "so_adal_sultanate", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": "The Adal Sultanate was one of the earliest Islamic Sultanates in the Somali region. The Adal, which was part of the Walasma Dynasty, was originally established in the late 9th or early 10th centuries based at the costal port city of Zelia on the Gulf of Aden. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2016, Encyclopedia of Empire) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2016. ‘Adal Sultanate.’ In J. Mackenzie Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FM8D55XW/library\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FM8D55XW/library</a> §REF§<br> During this time the dynasty was under the confederation of a larger Ifat Sultanate. It was not until the last quarter of the 14th century that the Adal became a powerful Sultanate that controlled vast swaths of territory from the Harar reigion to the Gulf of Aden up through present-day Eritrea. §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 149) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list</a> §REF§<br>The Adal Sultanate was frequently in conflict with the Christian kingdoms in Ethiopia, most notably from the 14th through the 16th centuries. The most powerful leader of the Adal Sultanate was Ahmād Ibrāhīm al Ghāzī also known as Ahmad Gurey (1506-1543). Gurey titled himself as imām and declared jihad on Christian Ethiopia. During his rule, he was supplied with military supplies from the Ottoman Empire which helped his army conquer over three-quarters of Ethiopia and even defeat early attacks from the Portuguese. His farthest inland campaign reached south-eastern Sudan. In 1543, imam Ahmad was mortally wounded in battle by Ethiopian and Portuguese forces at Lake Tana whom defeated the imam’s army. After the imam’s death the Adal Sultanate disintegrated and was absorbed into different kingdoms. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2016, Encyclopedia of Empire) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2016. ‘Adal Sultanate.’ In J. Mackenzie Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FM8D55XW/library\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FM8D55XW/library</a> §REF§<br>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 67, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels.<br>\"On parade, the Aq Qoyunlu Turkman troops were drawn up in the Turco-Mongol fashion of right wing, left wing, and center (sag wa sol wa manqalay).\"§REF§(Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii§REF§ Does this suggest, also like the Mongols, they used the decimal chain-of-command?<br>1. Sultan<br><br>2. Chief of Personal Guard (kawass) <i>inferred</i>\"the sultan maintained a force of paid personal guards (ḵawāṣṣ) who were recruited from several different nomadic and semi-nomadic groups.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>3. Soldier in Personal Guard<br>2. amīr-e noʾīn (commander) 10,000s?The top commanders were called amīr-e noʾīn (Mongolian noyan “master, lord”),<br>3. 1,000s?\"one group of the rank-and-file was called nowkars (Mongolian nökär “companion”)\"§REF§(Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii§REF§<br>4. 100s?\"the term for smaller, component units of the army (in the Timurid army, for a mere company of 50 to 100 men) was qošūn (Mongolian k/qošiḡun)\"§REF§(Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii§REF§<br>5. 10s?<br>6. Soldier", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 6, "military_level_to": 6, "polity": { "id": 508, "name": "IrAkKoy", "start_year": 1339, "end_year": 1501, "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu", "new_name": "ir_ak_koynlu", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Ak Koyunlu were a loose confederation of nomadic Turkman tribes that ruled in Iran between 1339-1501 CE. §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ They formed an alliance with the Timurid Emirate (1370-1526 CE) until Uzun Hasan (r. c1453-1478 CE) declared himself an independent sultan. §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ Their rule was ended by the Safavids in 1501 CE. §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ <br>The initial Ak Koyunlu government system was not complex; the sultan, a member of the Bayandor clan, was the head of a confederation §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) QR Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ and obliged to attend and abide by the decisions of a powerful council of Amirs (kengac) and tribal chiefs (boy kanlari). This collective \"determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate\". §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ However, by Qara Otman (c1398 CE) the Ak Koyunlu had gained \"at least a rudimentary bureaucratic apparatus of the Iranian-Islamic type.\" §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ in addition to support from more tribes, and better relations with Christian sedentary people.<br>In the second half of the fifthteenth century, the complexity of state institutions increased another step with the conquest of eastern Iran. §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ Uzun Hasan maintained the existing administrative system as well as their officials. §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ Woods (1998) notes that there is evidence of an attempt to standardize and regularize administrative and financial procedures. §REF§ (Woods 1998, 108) J E Woods. 1999. The Aqquyunlu. Clan, Confederation, Empire. Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 40, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels.<br>(1) Omanhene; (2) his Bodyguard (Gyasi) and Generals (Tufuhene); (3) Wing chiefs; (4) Local Chiefs acting as captains of companies; (5) commoners fulfilling the role of infantry<br>Political and military leadership often coincided: 'The long, complex history of the Akan peoples is one of internecine conflicts and, since the eighteenth century, of opposition to the encroachment of various colonial powers: the Dutch, Portuguese, Danish, French, and English. In addition, there have been continual threats from the Islamic peoples of the southern Saharan fringe. Essentially all these conflicts have been over monopolies in trade, first across the Sahara with northern Africa and, in later centuries, across the Atlantic with the countries of Europe and the Americas. Warfare has historically been a central institution, a means of extending territory and controlling external trade. The Akan state was typically divided into five or six military formations or \"wings,\" each under the authority of a wing chief. Beneath the wing chiefs, who are chosen by the king, are the chiefs of the main towns of a kingdom. The latter are from the town's ruling line.' §REF§Gilbert, Michelle, Lagacé, Robert O. and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Akan§REF§ 'It must be admitted that the origin of our State government and the principles on which it was founded, being solely military in character, one should feel content to accept the fact that the whole structure of the civil government we enjoy to-day is the result of martial adventures. This being so, it is only natural that people whose powers are clearly labelled as “military commanders”, etc., should exercise civil powers when the fruit of their labours bring peace. In almost all the Akan institutions, from the lowest servant to the highest officer, there is scarcely any whose civil powers are not based on military appointments. It is, therefore, most natural to fall into the habit of merging a civil into a military power.' §REF§Danquah, J. B. (Joseph Boakye) 1928. “Gold Coast: Akan Laws And Customs And The Akim Abuakwa Constitution”, 17§REF§ 'The Ohene of every district is the supreme commander of the fighting men. His orders are communicated through the captains (Asafuhenefu), or the Tufuhene, as the case may be. Whenever a council of war is convened he presides, and it is his duty to provide them with some powder and shot. Every male person able to bear arms is bound to serve his country, and each fighting man [Page 28] provides himself with arms and ammunitions, as well as provisions, at his own expense.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 27p§REF§ According to Sarbah, imperial Ashanti military organization was more 'developed' than that of smaller Akan predecessors: 'The common origin of the inhabitants of the Fanti districts, Asanti, and wherever the Akan language is spoken, has been already shown. † The Customary Laws of the inhabitants of these places are in the main identical, and the national constitutions resemble each other in many points, although Asanti military organization had been [Page 3] developed in a greater degree. In fact, while the Fanti communities were gradually bringing under their sway smaller states, the Asanti king by conquests was extending his power over many lands. At one time all countries from Cape Mount in Liberia to the western boundary of Dahomey were, with few exceptions, under Asanti jurisdiction.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 2p§REF§ But the Omanhene was supported by a bodyguard even before Ashanti imperial expansion: 'Omanhene is the head of the national life, and naturally president of the rulers of the people assembled either as a court for deciding cases or for legislation. The district, taken as a whole, is likewise considered as a body, whereof the Omanhene supports the head, and the next man in authority to him carries the foot. By virtue of his office, Omanhene has the right to be carried by four men or more, and uses three or more canopy umbrellas. At his installation a small sword, the insignia of his office, is handed to him, and he enjoys several other privileges. He is the commander-in-chief of all the fighting men of the district. His bodyguard and the immediate fighting men are called Gyasi. He is almost invariably a member of the Domtsifu or Intsin Company. Tufuhene is the man whose duty it is to command the fighting-men (from tuu, “to throw, e.g., arrows, etc.;” hence etuo, itur, “a gun”); a fighting leader, or commander. In some districts, and especially in the coast towns, Tufuhene is the next man in authority after Ohene.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 9§REF§ 'An Ohene is entitled to ride in a palanquin carried by two men and attended by two canopy umbrellas. An Odzikuro is the headman of a village. Penin is an elder, generally an old man of experience. Sahene is a man appointed to conduct war. A Safuhene is a captain of a company, and in some instances is a stoolholder. In fact, among the Akanfu, that is Asanti, Wassaw, Assin, Akim, and such like, each Ohene of the several towns and districts is referred to as the Safuhene of his Omanhene. The Gyasi are the bodyguard of an Ohene or Omanhene. They comprise, first, the blood relatives, especially the children and grandsons of the Ohene, and are called Bogyadom ( bogya, “blood”; dom, “troop”), who have the immediate custody of the stool; secondly, certain Asafuhenefu, with their men; thirdly, personal servants and domestic attendants (Gyasifu). The Gyasi perform the rites of the stool custom each year.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 9§REF§ 'The immediate retinue and body-guard of the Omanhene are called Gyasi, and consist of three groups of persons. (1) His male blood relatives, e.g. brothers, uncles, nephews; also his sons, whether by free or bond women. These persons usually are captains of the other fighting men. (2) Servants, slaves, and pawns, and their descendants. (3) Those originally attached to him by commendation or adoption; and captains, with their forces, appointed by the community as such.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 23§REF§ Akan troops were organized in companies under the leadership of captains, but even on this level civil and military leadership were often united in one person: 'Supi is a company captain, who keeps the company's flags, and especially their ammunition. The spokesman of an Ohene or village community is selected by the Ohene or Odzikuro. On his appointment it is usual in some districts for his family to give to the Ohene or councillors sua duma,that is, £2 9 s. 6 d. The councillors (Begwafu) are sometimes selected by the people on account of personal character and intelligence. Every councillor is not a stoolholder, nor is every stoolholder a councillor; but a great number of the councillors, however, are stoolholders. A stoolholder may be appointed a councillor, and his successor, when deemed a fit and proper person, follows him in his office. When a person becomes a councillor he is considered as promoted, therefore he severs his connection with his company, and must not take an active part in the management of the affairs of the company. A councillor must not be a partisan. Councillors who have not attained that position by right of inheritance are practically, and in truth, the direct representatives of the people, and voice public opinion. It is somewhat difficult to define the qualifications of such public men.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 10§REF§ 'The male persons of each ward originally formed a [Page 27] company, having its distinctive flags, drums, and other equipments. The honour of the flag is the first consideration, and his service to his company is the most indispensable duty of the citizen. The organization of the town companies has been already described. * In some towns there are as many as seven companies, members of which reside not only in the town, but also in the neighbouring villages. Lands cleared by the companies belong to them. The lands of the companies do not belong to the Ohene, for there are town lands, family lands, and stool lands. The Ohene has no right to ordinary tribute, and the public-stool income is derived from fines, penalties, and court fees. In this also the jurisdiction is personal. The Tufuhene, the councillors, and captains of the companies take part in the election and installation of a new Ohene. Before them he takes his oath of office, and if any lands are attached to the town stool, he holds them in trust for the public. The succession generally follows the common rule, but in some places it is the son who succeeds, not the brother or nephew. The townspeople can pass over the person nominated by the family and elect some other suitable person instead. They may also remove the Ohene, if found unfit to rule them any longer; in either of which events the town sword and stool, with all the public property thereunto appurtenant, are vested in the town council, whose duty it is to take them from the deposed ruler or his family and give them to the person appointed as new ruler or manager during the interval.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 26p§REF§ 'Each subordinate ruler, correctly the captain-chief (Safuhene), of the Omanhene, owns a stool of his office, commands the fighting men of, and rules, his district. The lands of the district are attached to his stool. Like the Omanhene, he also has officers and captains under him, and with his linguist, councillors, and elders he sits as a magistrate, before whose tribunal his subjects and people in his district are bound to appear.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 22§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 5, "polity": { "id": 113, "name": "GhAshnE", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1701, "long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti", "new_name": "gh_akan", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The gold-producing region between the Comoé and Volta rivers has been inhabited by Akan-speaking people since the 13th century CE. This region has seen the emergence of various autonomous states, including Bono, Djomo, Akwamu, Fante, and Asante. Later in its history, the founders of the Ga and Ewe states arrived from what is now Nigeria. §REF§ (Fage et al. 2017) Fage, John D., Ernest Amano Boateng, Donna J. Maier, and Oliver Davies. 2017. \"Ghana.\" Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XFKDKSW3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XFKDKSW3</a>. §REF§ In 1471, Portuguese sailors reached this stretch of coast and quickly established trade with the coastal Akan states, exchanging European goods for gold. §REF§ (Fage et al. 2017) Fage, John D., Ernest Amano Boateng, Donna J. Maier, and Oliver Davies. 2017. \"Ghana.\" Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XFKDKSW3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XFKDKSW3</a>. §REF§ Trade routes soon connected the coast to the Niger bend region, along which descendants of the former Bonda and Kumbu kingdoms founded the Akyerekyere and Akumu-Akoto kingdoms respectively. The Portuguese referred to this latter kingdom as the 'Acanes', which is the source of the name Akan. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. \"Culture Summary: Akan.\" eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ <br>In 1701, the Asante rebelled against the dominant Denkyira state and formed a confederacy of Akan states who accepted Asante rule. This confederacy began to conquer the surrounding polities, and by 1764 the Greater Asante controlled an area nearly the size of present-day Ghana. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. \"Culture Summary: Akan.\" eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ <br>Europeans continued to be drawn to the Ghanaian coast in search of gold and, by the 19th century, the British were the strongest European power in the region. In 1827, British-led troops defeated an Asante army at Katammanso. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. \"Culture Summary: Akan.\" eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ In 1831, the British and Asante signed a peace treaty that allowed trade in all ports, and by 1844 the British gained control over criminal matters in the areas around trade forts. By 1872, the British had complete control of the coast, and when they did not recognize Asante sovereignty, the Asante attacked. The British were victorious, and after another war in 1895, the Asante king and chiefs were exiled. The entire region was declared a British territory in 1901. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. \"Culture Summary: Akan.\" eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the pre-Asante period, each Akan state consisted of a single kingdom ruled by an <i>omanhene</i>, which literally translates to 'state-chief'. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. \"Culture Summary: Akan.\" eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ This king came from a royal clan, and was elected by various officials, most notably the <i>ohemmaa</i> ('queen-mother'), who was a senior woman of the clan. The king was a sacred person who could not be observed eating or drinking; nor could he be heard to speak or be spoken to. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. \"Culture Summary: Akan.\" eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ <br>After 1701, political organization within the region became far more bureaucratic and specialized. Kumasi became the capital of the union of Asante states and the seat of the empire. Appointed officials began to replace those wielding hereditary authority, and a treasury partly operated by literate Muslims was created. §REF§ (McLeod 1981) McLeod, M. D. 1981. The Asante. London: British Museum Publications. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RS692TAZ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RS692TAZ</a>. §REF§ However, while bureaucrats ran many of the day-to-day operations of the empire, the authority of the king was still absolute. §REF§ (Arhin 1986, 165-66) Arhin, Kwame. 1986. \"The Asante Praise Poems: The Ideology of Patrimonialism.\" Paideuma, no. 32: 163-97. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/87N692IT\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/87N692IT</a>. §REF§ <br>Population estimates are not available for the pre-Asante period. The population of the entire Asante union in 1874 is estimated at three million people. §REF§ (Obeng 1996, 20) Obeng, J. Pashington. 1996. Asante Catholicism: Religious and Cultural Reproduction among the Akan of Ghana. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P8MFGRGQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P8MFGRGQ</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 7, "name": "Ghanaian Coast", "subregion": "West Africa", "longitude": "-0.217920000000", "latitude": "5.573135000000", "capital_city": "Accra", "nga_code": "GH", "fao_country": "Ghana", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 277, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels.<br>1. King<br>\"The king was supreme commander, the general the top field officer.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 168) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>2. ShakkanakkumGeneral - shakkanakkum.§REF§(Foster 2016, 167) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>3. General in charge of smaller army divisions (<i>shagina</i>)§REF§Hamblin 2006, 97§REF§ -- <i>not mentioned by Foster (2016)</i>> Ensi governor §REF§Hamblin 2006, 97§REF§ -- <i>not mentioned by Foster (2016); note below</i>> Captain of local detachment -- <i>when not in the field are governors part of the chain of command?</i>> Individual soldier<br>4. Nu-bandanu-banda.§REF§Hamblin 2006, 97§REF§ \"The next command in rank was the nu-banda.\" Battalion, probably had 600 men.§REF§(Foster 2016, 168) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§ Colonel or major - nubanda.§REF§(Foster 2016, 167) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>5. UgalaUgala lead smaller unit of about 60.§REF§(Foster 2016, 168) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§ Captain - ugala.§REF§(Foster 2016, 167) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>6. Individual soldier<br>At Mugdan was \"the seat of a manor that dominated the local countryside. ... This manor belong to members of the royal faily or royal household ... managed by a governor (ensi). Other local officials included the shaperum (majordomi) and a captain in command of a detachment of soldiers stationed there.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 59) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Records from Umma<br>\"booty officer(?), the son of a governor in Syria (in training?), equerry, royal commissioner, door attendant, recruiter, courier, cupbearer, minister, quartermaster(?), saperum wuth his clerk, quartermaster of garments(?), physician, porters, constable, an officer in charge of putting identification marks on (captured?) goods (? saper ZAG.SUS), an ass herder, and an assortment of foreigners.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 168) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 5, "military_level_to": 6, "polity": { "id": 476, "name": "IqAkkad", "start_year": -2270, "end_year": -2083, "long_name": "Akkadian Empire", "new_name": "iq_akkad_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The polity at Akkad in Iraq is often thought to represent the \"first world empire\". §REF§ (Brisch 2013, 120) N Brisch. 2013. History and chronology. In: H. Crawford (ed.), <i>The Sumerian World.</i>London and New York: Routledge, 111-130. §REF§ §REF§ Liverani 1993 §REF§ Its name derives from city of Akkad (Agade, location still undetermined), which was a capital of the kingdom. The period is also called Sargonic Period after the founder of Akkad and the ruling dynasty - Sargon (Sharrukin). The end of Akkadian empire seems to be associated with the invasion of the Gutians, and is correlated with some climate changes. §REF§ (Weiss 2002, 22) H Weiss. 2002. Akkadian. Akkadian Empire. In: P. N. Peregrine & M. Ember, <i>Encyclopaedia of Prehistory. South and Southeast Asia, Volume 8</i>. New York: Springer, 21-24. §REF§ <br>Sargon's power mainly depended on his army, which was probably a regular standing army. §REF§ (Hamblin 2006, 74-75) W J Hamblin. 2006. <i>Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC</i>. New York: Routledge. §REF§ Foster (2016) describes an Empire as \"an entity put together and maintained by force, with provinces administered by officials sent out from the capital in the heartland\" and claims this is \"precisely what we see in the Akkadian period.\" §REF§ (Foster 2016, 80) Benjamin R Foster. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London. §REF§ Barjamovic (2012) notes that the formation of the private royal army and the construction of regional military strongholds together with the division of the conquered territories into provinces was the key to Akkad's \"permanent imperial presence.\" §REF§ (Barjamović 2012, 130) G Barjamović. 2012. Mesopotamian Empires. In: P. Fibiger Bang & W. Scheidel (eds.), <i>The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 120-160. §REF§ <br>To increase control from the center, Sargon appointed Akkadian governors (ensi) in Sumerian cities in a place of older Sumerian rulers §REF§ (Hamblin 2006, 75) W J Hamblin. 2006. <i>Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC</i>. New York: Routledge. §REF§ although some cities continued to be ruled by a local ensi. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 138) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ In fact, all local officials probably had a great deal of de facto independence. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 138) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ As an additional means of control, Sargon sent his daughter - Enheduanna - to be the highest priestess of god Sin in Uruk. This practice was continued by his descendants. §REF§ (Franke 1995, 831-841) S Franke. 1995. Kings of Akkad: Sargon and Naram-Sin. In: J. M. Sasson (ed.) <i>Civilization of Ancient Near East</i>. Peabody: Hendrikson, 831-841. §REF§ <br>Naram-Sin, a grandson of Sargon, was one of the greatest ruler of Akkad in terms of military conquest and administration. His reforms included a unified system of measurements. He undertook also the process of renovation of Ekur temple and on his death was deified and treated as protective deity. §REF§ (Franke 1995, 384) S Franke. 1995. Kings of Akkad: Sargon and Naram-Sin. In: J. M. Sasson (ed.) <i>Civilization of Ancient Near East</i>. Peabody: Hendrikson, 831-841. §REF§ Akkadian was the official language of empire, and all official documents were written in Akkadian, although Sumerian still was in use, especially in Southern Mesopotamia. §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2007, 67) §REF§ <br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 62, "name": "Mesopotamia", "subregions_list": "Iraq, Kuwait", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 355, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels.“The formation of a black army and the building of the empire were costly. To minimize the costs, Mawlay Isma‘il kept his government simple and made it more palace-centered than Makhzan civil serviceoriented. The palace has always been central to the Makhzan in “traditional” Morocco and, as contemporary Moroccan historian Mohamed El Mansour wrote, “the so-called ‘Makhzan service’ was basically made up of the palace domestic organization, the administrative hierarchy and the army.” According to Windus, the sultan’s administrative staff at the court was made up of five standing officers: ‘the Grand Mufti for Affairs of Religion; the chief Eunuch to take Care of the Seraglio; a Treasurer for his Revenue; the Superintendant of his Buildings and the Basha of Mekness, who is the first Minister, or the supreme Akcayde, of which there are three forts; the first and chief are those who, in the nature of Vice-Roys, are sent to govern the Provinces; to whom, for their greater Honour, is sometimes given the Title of Bashas [. . .]. Another fort are the Generals of his Armies, and Commanders over small Parties of Horse of Foot. The Third fort are Governours of Cities, or Towns, and are either made by the Emperor himself, as are the Alcaydes of Morocco [Marrakesh], Fez, Sally, and other great Cities; or by the Governours of the Provinces, over small Towns and Cities; a fourth fort may be added, which are titular only, and therefore called Alcaydes of their Heads’.”§REF§(El Hamel 2014: 202) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS§REF§ : 1. Sultan :: 2. Generals ::: 3. Commanders :::: 4. Soldiers ", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 4, "polity": { "id": 578, "name": "mo_alawi_dyn_1", "start_year": 1631, "end_year": 1727, "long_name": "Alaouite Dynasty I", "new_name": "mo_alawi_dyn_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>“In 1666 Mawlay al-Rashid was proclaimed sultan in Fez as the first ruler of the new 'Alawi dynasty. In 1669 he conquered Marrakesh and two years later, in 1671, his envoy came to Timbuktu and 'the army pledged allegiance to Mawlay al-Rashid'.2 In other words, as soon as a new Sharifian dynasty assumed authority in Morocco, the arma in Timbuktu renewed nominal and symbolic allegiance.”§REF§(Fage and Oliver 1975: 150) Fage, J. D. and Oliver, Roland Anthony. 1975. eds., The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 4, from c. 1600 to c. 1790. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z6BCU87M§REF§<br>“As the two Sa’did makhzans based on Marrakech and Fez crumbled in the middle years of the seventeenth century (see above, no. 20), Morocco was rent by internal factions, usually with strong religious, maraboutic bases. It was the ‘Alawids or Filālī Shorfā, of the same Hasanī descent as the declining Sa’dids, who finally succeeded in imposing order from an original centre in Tafilalt, the valley of the Wādī Zīz in south-eastern Morocco (whence the name Filālī). Mawlāy al-Rashīd was the first of the family to assume the title of sultan. He began the work of pacification and attempted a a restoration of central authority throughout Morocco, but this proved an extremely lengthy process, so deep-rooted had become provincialism and anarchy. A strong figure like Mawlāy Ismā’īl tried in vain to solve these problems by recruiting, in addition to the gīsh (<Class. Ar. jaysh) or the sultans’ military guard of Arabs, a standing army which included among other elements black slave troops, the ‘abīd al-Bukhārī (colloquially known as the Bwākher), descendants of black slaves imported by the Sa‘dids; it was also Ismā’īl who developed Meknès as the capital and the favoured place of residence for himself and his eighteenth-century successors. But he failed to dislodge the Christians from the ports held by them, and, after his death, Morocco was plunged into its nadir of anarchy and brigandage, with a succession of rival, ephemeral rulers.”§REF§(Boswroth 1996: 115) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 1996. \"The 'Alawid or Filali Sharifs\". The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh. Edinburgh University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6JRSLIB§REF§<br>Isma'il ruled between 1672-1727 and was one of the longest reigning Moroccan sultans. Upon his death his sons fought over the succession and the country went to war until 1757. Isma'il had fathered hundreds of sons, most of whom were eligible for the throne. While the sons were fighting for control of the throne, the country was rebelling against the taxes that Isma'il had imposed. The 'Abid had also grown incredibly powerful during Isma'il's reign and were able to install, influence and depose of sultans. Three of Isma'il's sons ruled on and off between 1727-1733 during which time installations and depositions of sultans were controlled by the 'Abid and in the meantime, north Morocco became almost completely independant of central governement, being ruled by the son of a local governor. . Abu'l Abbas Ahmad was deposed in 1728, only to be reinstated shortly after, but then deposed again on the day of his death on 5 March 1729 - he was smothered to death by his wives in a palace conspiracy. (El Hamel 2014: 213) His half-brother Moulay Abdelmalik was proclaimed sultan before Ahmad was deposed but was murdered three days before his brother died. (El Hamel 2014: 213) His brother and successor, Moulay Abdallah, was made Sultan and deposed six times between 1729 and 1757 (1729–1734, 1736, 1740–1741, 1741–1742, 1743–1747 and 1748–1757). Upon Abdallah's death his sole surviving heir, Mohammed ben Abdallah, became sultan in 1757 and full order was restored across the country. §REF§(El Hamel 2014: 213) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Maghreb", "subregions_list": "From Morocco to Libya", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 361, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels.: 1. King :: 2. Comitatus (pledged warriors) :: (later called Thegns) “In a society where the success of a ruler and the people dependent upon him derived from effectiveness in war, the relationship of the king with his military followers was of vital importance. Tacitus saw the relationship of king and warband (comitatus) as central to the success and failure of the Germanic provinces he describes. The interaction between the king and his warriors is also a major concern of Old English heroic poetry. Poems like Beowulf stress the reciprocal nature of the relationship of king and comitatus. The followers fought loyally for their lord, but the loyalty had been purchased beforehand by the upkeep the king provided for his warriors and by the giving of gifts; conspicuous acts of loyalty in battle would be rewarded by further gifts-appropriate generosity was what made a ‘good king’. When not in battle, the king’s hall was the place where the necessary bonding of lord and follower occurred. The comitatus ate and slept in the hall at the king’s expense.” §REF§(Yorke 1990: 17) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN§REF§ ::: 3. Fryd (standing army)::: The fryd were a standing army always in service. They were divided up to protect the burghs and shires of the kingdom.§REF§(Baker and Brooks 2015: 229) Baker, John and Brookes, Stuart. “Explaining Anglo-Saxon Military Efficiency: The Landscape of Mobilization”, Anglo-Saxon England 44 (December 2015): 221–58, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0263675100080121. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5LN4TEJV§REF§ ", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "polity": { "id": 574, "name": "gb_anglo_saxon", "start_year": 410, "end_year": 926, "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England I", "new_name": "gb_anglo_saxon_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>Anglo-Saxon England existed between the fall of Roman Britain in 410 CE and the quickly subsequent mass migration into the region of the Germanic speaking Angle, Saxon, and Jute tribes from western Europe, until the Norman invasion and conquest of 1066.<br>“The most developed vision of a ‘big’ sub-Roman Britain, with control over its own political and military destiny for well over a century, is that of Kenneth Dark, who has argued that Britain should not be divided during the fifth, and even the bulk of the sixth, century into ‘British’ and ‘Anglo-Saxon’ cultural and/or political provinces, but should be thought of as a generally ‘British’ whole. His thesis, in brief, is to postulate not just survival but continuing cultural, political and military power for the sub-Roman elite, both in the far west (where this view is comparatively uncontroversial) but also in the east, where it has to be imagined alongside incoming settlements. He postulates the sub-Roman community to have been the dominant force in insular affairs right up to c.570. Then, over a sixty year period, but for no very obvious reason, Anglo-Saxon kingship begins to emerge, the English conversion began and, in this scenario, Anglo- Saxon leaders overthrew British power and set about establishing their own kingdoms.”§REF§(Higham 2004: 4) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K§REF§<br>Anglo-Saxon ‘England’ after the migration of the Germanic tribes from the European mainland was in fact formed of several kingdoms known as the Heptarchy: Wessex, Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia and the minor kingdoms of Essex, Sussex, and Kent all ruled by different monarchs or dynasties (in the case of the minor kingdoms), and who all at one time or another were allies or enemies, looking to claim more power from the others.<br>The three major kingdoms all looked at one point that they would become the dominant power and unite the kingdoms under one rule; Northumbria in the seventh century and Mercia in the eighth century. But it was the House of Wessex that rose to the greatest power under King Egbert at the beginning of the ninth century. During his reign 802-839 CE Wessex expanded rapidly across the south. It benefitted from its strategic position and its growing wealth enabled the purchase of the best warriors and military technology. It also led the wars against the incoming Viking invasions, whose first raid on the island had taken place in 793 CE. §REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 27) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§<br>Vikings, mainly from Denmark and Norway, raided and conquered territories in East Anglia, Essex and parts of Mercia and Northumbria between the 9th and 11th centuries. From 865 CE the Viking-settled region became known as Danelaw and was granted Danish self-rule in 884 CE under King Guthrum of Norway. Ongoing battles and attempts to expand territory on both sides resulted in the beginning of the breakup of Danelaw in 902 CE when the region of Essex submitted to the rule of King Æthelwald.§REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 27-28) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§<br>The region now known as England was not completely united as a country, the Kingdom of England, until 927 under King Æthelstan, after a drawn-out process of conflict and consolidation. Moreover, Northumbria, the northern most region of England and therefore the most susceptible to invasion by Scandinavian forces, continued to fall in and out of English and Danish rule until 954 when King Eadred brought it fully under English control, where it remained. At the same time, Lothian, the small area which bordered northern Northumbria, was ceded to Scotland as part of the deal.§REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 29-30) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-11-20T10:50:53.730666Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 351, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels.: 1. King :: 2. Comitatus (pledged warriors) :: (later called Thegns) “In a society where the success of a ruler and the people dependent upon him derived from effectiveness in war, the relationship of the king with his military followers was of vital importance. Tacitus saw the relationship of king and warband (comitatus) as central to the success and failure of the Germanic provinces he describes. The interaction between the king and his warriors is also a major concern of Old English heroic poetry. Poems like Beowulf stress the reciprocal nature of the relationship of king and comitatus. The followers fought loyally for their lord, but the loyalty had been purchased beforehand by the upkeep the king provided for his warriors and by the giving of gifts; conspicuous acts of loyalty in battle would be rewarded by further gifts-appropriate generosity was what made a ‘good king’. When not in battle, the king’s hall was the place where the necessary bonding of lord and follower occurred. The comitatus ate and slept in the hall at the king’s expense.” §REF§(Yorke 1990: 17) York, Barbara. 1990. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203447307. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YXTNCWJN§REF§ ::: 3. Fryd (standing army)::: The fryd were a standing army always in service. They were divided up to protect the burghs and shires of the kingdom.§REF§(Baker and Brooks 2015: 229) Baker, John and Brookes, Stuart. “Explaining Anglo-Saxon Military Efficiency: The Landscape of Mobilization”, Anglo-Saxon England 44 (December 2015): 221–58, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0263675100080121. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5LN4TEJV§REF§ ", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "polity": { "id": 606, "name": "gb_england_k", "start_year": 927, "end_year": 1065, "long_name": "Anglo-Saxon England II", "new_name": "gb_anglo_saxon_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>The Kingdom of England was formed in 927 CE when the independent kingdoms of Wessex, Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Danelaw (the Danish occupied kingdom) and the minor kingdoms of Essex, Sussex, and Kent were finally unified as one country after under King Æthelstan, after a drawn-out process of conflict and consolidation in the preceding few centuries.<br>Northumbria, the northern most region of England and therefore the most susceptible to invasion by Scandinavian forces, continued to fall in and out of English and Danish rule until 954 CE when King Eadred brought it fully under English control, where it remained. At the same time, Lothian, the small area which bordered northern Northumbria, was ceded to Scotland as part of the deal.<br>In 1016 Cnut (Canute), the son of Swein of Denmark invaded and defeated the weak King Ethelred of England. He was invited to take up the throne of England and established a strong and united England. Despite being a Dane, he was Christian, and the English people and nobles wanted a strong ruler who would end the incessant raids from the north. He married Ethelred’s widow, Queen Emma of Normandy. Cnut was allied with the English and the Danes and brought peace to the kingdom. Cnut also became King of Denmark in 1019 and King of Norway in 1028, which along with England, formed the Great North Sea Empire under his rule. Though both of his sons succeeded his rule - Harald 1035-1040, and Harthacnut 1040-1042 - the death of the second resulted in Edward, the son of King Ethelred and Queen Emma, to be recalled from Normandy (France) to take the throne.<br>Anglo-Saxon monarchs then ruled a united Kingdom of England in peace until January 1066 with the death of King Edward, who had no children. A succession crisis occurred when Harold, Edward’s brother-in-law, and William, duke of Normandy, his cousin, both claimed that Edward had promised them the throne. Though Harold was crowned immediately after Edward’s death, William later invaded the south coast and defeated King Harold’s forces at the Battle of Hastings in October 1066. His succession to the English throne as William the Conqueror marked the beginning of Norman England – bringing with it new language, customs, and culture - and the end of the Anglo-Saxon period.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2023-07-10T15:44:50.145449Z", "modified_date": "2024-05-16T13:37:00.545128Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }