Military Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Military Levels.
GET /api/sc/military-levels/?ordering=military_level_to
{ "count": 364, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/military-levels/?ordering=military_level_to&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 312, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "levels. The following reconstruction of small communities consisting of extended families based in autonomous homesteads suggests minimal social diffrentiation. ”For the first 400 years of the settlement's history, Kirikongo was a single economically generalized social group (Figure 6). The occupants were self-sufficient farmers who cultivated grains and herded livestock, smelted and forged iron, opportunistically hunted, lived in puddled earthen structures with pounded clay floors, and fished in the seasonal drainages. [...] Since Kirikongo did not grow (at least not significantly) for over 400 years, it is likely that extra-community fissioning continually occurred to contribute to regional population growth, and it is also likely that Kirikongo itself was the result of budding from a previous homestead. However, with the small scale of settlement, the inhabitants of individual homesteads must have interacted with a wider community for social and demographic reasons. [...] It may be that generalized single-kin homesteads like Kirikongo were the societal model for a post-LSA expansion of farming peoples along the Nakambe (White Volta) and Mouhoun (Black Volta) River basins. A homestead settlement pattern would fit well with the transitional nature of early sedentary life, where societies are shifting from generalized reciprocity to more restricted and formalized group membership, and single-kin communities like Kirikongo's house (Mound 4) would be roughly the size of a band.”§REF§(Dueppen 2012: 27, 32)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 0, "military_level_to": 0, "polity": { "id": 613, "name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_5", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 500, "long_name": "West Burkina Faso Yellow I", "new_name": "bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_5", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 311, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "levels. Inferred from the following quote. \"As demonstrated by the uniformity of their material culture and their presumed belief system, most prominently reflected by the terracotta sculptures, external contacts within their culture must have existed. However, such a larger social network apparently was not organised and maintained in a way as to infer social inequality, social hierarchies or other signs of internal demarcation traceable by available archaeological data. None of the numerous excavations brought to light architectural remains of specified buildings or the spatial organisation of housing areas that might have been occupied by high-ranking members of the community. Further, among the admittedly few features interpreted as graves there is no evidence of any heterogeneity pointing to a difference between burials of elite members or commoners. Nowhere, an accumulation of valuable objects neither of iron nor any other materials signifying inequality in terms of property or prosperity was found.\" §REF§(Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 252) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/ES4TRU7R.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 0, "military_level_to": 0, "polity": { "id": 612, "name": "ni_nok_1", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -901, "long_name": "Middle and Late Nok", "new_name": "ni_nok_1", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 313, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "levels. Inferred from the following quote. \"As demonstrated by the uniformity of their material culture and their presumed belief system, most prominently reflected by the terracotta sculptures, external contacts within their culture must have existed. However, such a larger social network apparently was not organised and maintained in a way as to infer social inequality, social hierarchies or other signs of internal demarcation traceable by available archaeological data. None of the numerous excavations brought to light architectural remains of specified buildings or the spatial organisation of housing areas that might have been occupied by high-ranking members of the community. Further, among the admittedly few features interpreted as graves there is no evidence of any heterogeneity pointing to a difference between burials of elite members or commoners. Nowhere, an accumulation of valuable objects neither of iron nor any other materials signifying inequality in terms of property or prosperity was found.\" §REF§(Breunig and Ruppe 2016: 252) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/ES4TRU7R.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 0, "military_level_to": 0, "polity": { "id": 615, "name": "ni_nok_2", "start_year": -900, "end_year": 0, "long_name": "Middle and Late Nok", "new_name": "ni_nok_2", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 326, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "levels. There were likely military roles in specific communities, but not on the polity level. “The Kingdom of Nri (1043–1911) was the West African medieval state of the Nri Igbo, a subgroup of the Igbo people, and is the oldest kingdom in Nigeria. The Kingdom of Nri was unusual in the history of world government in that its leader exercised no military power over his subjects. The kingdom existed as a sphere of religious and political influence over much of Igboland, and was administered by a priest-king called the eze Nri. The eze Nri managed trade and diplomacy on behalf of the Igbo people, and was the possessor of divine authority in religious matters.” §REF§Ngara, C. A. (n.d.). An Ethnohistorical Account Of Pre-Colonial Africa, African Kingdoms And African Historical States. 25:11. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/UJG3ED8W/collection§REF§ “Although bloodshed is inherent in this historical charter, for many centuries the people of Nri have had a strong commitment to peace, rooted in the belief that it is an abomination to pollute the sacred Earth. “The white men that came started by killing those who did not agree with their rules. We Nri never did so”.” §REF§Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press, 1997: 246. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/Z4GK27CI/collection§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 0, "military_level_to": 0, "polity": { "id": 668, "name": "ni_nri_k", "start_year": 1043, "end_year": 1911, "long_name": "Ọ̀ràézè Ǹrì", "new_name": "ni_nri_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 184, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "polity": { "id": 464, "name": "UzKok01", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1000, "long_name": "Koktepe I", "new_name": "uz_koktepe_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "\"Pre-Achaemenid period. Before the arrival of Iranian peoples in Central Asia, Sogdiana had already experienced at least two urban phases. The first was at Sarazm (4th-3rd m. BCE), a town of some 100 hectares has been excavated, where both irrigation agriculture and metallurgy were practiced (Isakov). It has been possible to demonstrate the magnitude of links with the civilization of the Oxus as well as with more distant regions, such as Baluchistan. The second phase began in at least the 15th century BCE at Kok Tepe, on the Bulungur canal north of the Zarafsan River, where the earliest archeological material appears to go back to the Bronze Age, and which persisted throughout the Iron Age, until the arrival from the north of the Iranian-speaking populations that were to become the Sogdian group. It declined with the rise of Samarkand (Rapin, 2007). Pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana is recalled in the Younger Avesta (chap. 1 of the Vidēvdād, q.v.) under the name Gava and said to be inhabited by the Sogdians. §REF§ (De la Vaissière, Encyclopedia Iranica online, <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology</a>) §REF§ <br>\"Archaeologists are now generally agreed that the Andronovo culture of the Central Steppe region in the second millennium BC is to be equated with the Indo-Iranians. However, no matter how pastorally oriented these people's culture probably was, they were no nomads. They lived in permanent houses, not on wagons or in tents as the earliest nomads are known to have done.\" §REF§ (Beckwith 2009, 49) Beckwith, Christopher I. 2009. Empires of the Silk Road. A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ <br><br/>According to Claude Rapin, for \"the complex question relating to the Early Iron Age in Central Asia\" read this (and another 2001 work)<br>Francfort, H. -P. 1989. Fouilles de Shortugai. Recherches sur l'Asie central protohistorique, Memoires de la Mission archeologique francaise en Asie centrale 2, Paris.<br><br/>\"it can be provisionally assumed that the two earlier Iron Age phases distinguished at Koktepe could represent the first manifestations of local agricultural development. Maurizio Tosi has proposed that for the southern slopes of the Zerafshan valley, along the Dargom canal, this economic system could have developed from an earlier period, when irrigation was limited to the natural flows of water from the foothills (Koktepe I period), to a later irrigation system, mainly exemplified by the excavation of the great canals deriving from the Zerafshan, the Bulungur and the Dargom (Koktepe II period).\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 35) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br><br/><br>\"As was the case for various earlier constructions, both monuments were abandoned during a period of nomad invasions, possibly in the sixth century BC. (We know, for instance, that east of the Caspian Sea Darius I had to fight Scythian nomads like those represented by their king Skunkha illustrated as a defeated prisoner on the relief of Behistun).\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br> ??? - 1000 BCE Koktepe I<br>1000 - 750 BCE Chronological gap<br>750 - 550 BCE Koktepe II \"sacred courtyard area\" \"strongly fortified courtyards\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br>550 - ??? BCE Scythians? \"nomadic establishment\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br> ??? - ??? BCE Koktepe IIIa \"totally different expression of monumental urbanism\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ - could be Archaemenid<br><br/>Koktepe IIIa<br>\"The next period is represented at Koktepe by the construction of two platforms with religious and political functions ... and by a huge fortification wall built in the plain around the site.\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br>\"this rampart seems to have been built at the same time as the fortification that surrounds the plateau of Afrasiab ... Both walls not only protected monumental buildings, but also encircled a large open area, probably for the surrounding population to shelter with their cattle when necessary. This conception is characteristic of Central Asian urbanism near the steppe areas (Francfor 2001), and is also apparent in later cities, such as Ai Khanum or Taxila-Sirkap.\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br>\"The sacred function of the monument, probably related to early Zoroastrianism (or at least to a local cult affiliated to the Indo-Iranian complex), is confirmed by the evidence of a ritual of foundation performed just before its construction.\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 37) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br><br/>Early Iron Age settlement C14 dated to second-half of second and beginning of first millennium BCE. §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§ <br><div>Koktepe site excavated by C. Rapin and M. Kh. Ismaddinov between 1994 and 2008 by the French Uzbek Archaeological Mission of Sogdiana. §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§ <br>Site about 17ha. §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§ <br>Of samples taken, earliest C14 date c1400-1200 BCE, latest C14 date 810-760 BCE §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§ <br>\"we can now suggest dividing the Early Iron Age in Sogdiana into two sub-periods characterized by a strong continuity.\" §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§ </div><br>Köktepe I:<br>\" L’objet le plus ancien de Koktepe est un poids discoïdal en pierre muni d’une anse datable du XVIIIe siècle av. n. è. Cette trouvaille isolée d’un instrument cultuel suppose le voisinage d’un site du bronze moyen que l’on ne peut identifier pour le moment, car les périodes les plus anciennes de l’occupation de la plaine du Zerafshan ne sont pour l’essentiel représentées aujourd’hui que par le site de Sarazm (Lyonnet 1996) et des trouvailles funéraires isolées (Avanesova 2010).<br>Le milieu urbain au début de l’occupation de Koktepe est celui d’une agglomération relativement dense composée de maisons à pièces multiples construites en piséau-dessus du sol, plus rarement creusées dans le sol naturel, mais vers la fin de cette période, l’habitat n’est plus représenté que par des huttes légères (figures 6-7). Le développement économique repose alors encore sur une agriculture sèche qui pourrait avoir été périodiquement secondée par les eaux d’un torrent de montagne (communications orales de B. Rondelli et M. Isamiddinov). Durant cette première phase, le site s’inscrit dans le contexte de la céramique modelée peinte caractéris-tique de la culture de Burgulûk (oasis de Tashkent), qui fait elle-même partie de la civilisation qui, du Turkménistan au Xinjiang, s’étend dans la période de transition entre l’age du bronze et l’age du fer, du dernier tiers du IIe millénaire au début du Ier millénaire av. n. è. (époque dite « de Yaz I ») (Lhuillier 2010 ; Lhuillier, Isamiddinov, Rapin 2012 ; Lyonnet, ce volume).\" §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 124-125) §REF§ During its first phase, Kok Tepe was part of the Burguluk culture, which corresponds to the Yaz I civilization from Turkmenistan to Xinjiang (last third of the second millennium BCE- beginning of the first millennium BCE)<br>\"Pre-Achaemenid period. Before the arrival of Iranian peoples in Central Asia, Sogdiana had already experienced at least two urban phases. The first was at Sarazm (4th-3rd m. BCE), a town of some 100 hectares has been excavated, where both irrigation agriculture and metallurgy were practiced (Isakov). It has been possible to demonstrate the magnitude of links with the civilization of the Oxus as well as with more distant regions, such as Baluchistan. The second phase began in at least the 15th century BCE at Kok Tepe, on the Bulungur canal north of the Zarafšān River, where the earliest archeological material appears to go back to the Bronze Age, and which persisted throughout the Iron Age, until the arrival from the north of the Iranian-speaking populations that were to become the Sogdian group. It declined with the rise of Samarkand (Rapin, 2007). Pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana is recalled in the Younger Avesta (chap. 1 of the Videvdad, q.v.) under the name Gava and said to be inhabited by the Sogdians. §REF§ (De la Vaissière, Encyclopedia Iranica online, <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology</a>) §REF§ <br><br/>Transition period between Kok01 and Kok02:\"Sur le plan stratigraphique, la fin de cette première période vers la fin du IIe ou le début du Ier millénaire est apparemment marquée par une interruption de la céra-mique peinte. D’après les vestiges d’une épaisse couche organique présente partout sur le site, cette période pourrait avoir été celle d’une population semi-sédentaire, peut-être assez nombreuse, qui se serait installée à Koktepe avec du bétail. §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 126) §REF§ <br>transition period: starting in the late 2nd millennium BCE/early 1st millennium BCE<br>no more painted ceramic<br>thick organic layer found stratigraphically on the whole site: semi-sedentary population, living on Koktepe with their animals.<br>Edward Turner's interpretation of pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana (Koktepe in particular):<br>'The essential tension was the sedentary population needed (their irrigated) fields for growing crops, nomads needed land for grazing. so the \"strongly fortified courtyards\" is a manifestation of this tension.<br>another reason for fortification would be that wave/s of invasion/destruction had happened before:<br>\"By 1600 BCE, peoples carrying the Andronovo cultural package had displaced, if not destroyed, the Bactrian/Margiana towns\".<br>then the Yaz I replaced the Andronovo - UzKok01. (destruction then as well?)<br>if the inhabitants within the UzKok02 courtyards were Scythians they had probably invaded then settled c750 BCE, presumably causing some destruction of the previous culture.<br>an important line of evidence for invade/destroy/replace also is that it is likely that about 800 BCE the nomadic tribes around Central Asia began to use armies of horseback archers. the fact the sedentarized Scythians built fortifications must reflect the increased danger from the Steppe.<br>their identity lasted until either the Achaemenid or until another wave of Scythians destroyed their culture c550 BCE'.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 285, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels. Kenoyer writes that there is no evidence of the existence of an army even during the period 2600 BCE - 1900 BCE§REF§Jonathan Mark Kenoyer. 'Uncovering the keys to the Lost Indus Cities', <i>Scientific American</i>, vol. 15, no. 1, 2005, p. 29.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 0, "military_level_to": 1, "polity": { "id": 119, "name": "PkChalc", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -3200, "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic", "new_name": "pk_kachi_ca", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jarrige, Jean-François, and Jean-François Enault. 1976. “Fouilles de Pirak - Baluchistan.” Arts Asiatiques 32 (1): 29-70. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q32UJUPX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q32UJUPX</a>. §REF§ The earliest evidence for agriculture here was found in Mehrgarh and dates to 7000 BCE. The occupation of the settlement continued throughout the period under consideration here, between the 4th and the 2nd millennia BCE. In the region generally, the number of sites increased, the sites themselves became larger, and they expanded into the Indus Basin; notable sites include Periano Ghundai, Mundigak, Faiz Mohammad, Togau, and Sheri Khan Tarakai. Mehrgarh itself became an important centre for craft production, and excavations suggest increased diversity in burial rites. Agriculture remained the main economic activity in the region and oats, a new variety of barley and two new varieties of bread wheat became new staple cultivars. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 57-61) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It is not possible to give an accurate estimate of the region's population at this time, §REF§ (Possehl 1999, 472) Possehl, Gregory L. 1999. Indus Age: The Beginnings. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWNUD7IH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWNUD7IH</a>. §REF§ and the size of occupied Mehrgarh is uncertain, as the population shifted over time and part of the site has been cut away by the Bolan River. §REF§ (Jarrige 2013, 135-154) Jarrige, J.-F. 2013. Mehrgarh Neolithic. Paris: Éditions de Boccard. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MKZA34B\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MKZA34B</a>. §REF§ Similarly, the literature does not provide many clues as to the political organization of Mehrgarh or any other site in the region during this period.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 38, "name": "Pakistan", "subregions_list": "Pakistan", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 189, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "polity": { "id": 486, "name": "IrForma", "start_year": -7200, "end_year": -7000, "long_name": "Formative Period", "new_name": "ir_susiana_formative", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "\"The Formative Ceramic Phase. Soon after the initial Aceramic phase at Coga Bonut, plain and crude pottery vessels of simple shapes appeared, marking the beginning of the Formative Ceramic phase of the following Archaic period. During this phase, several classes of simple decorated pottery vessels, some with fugitive paint, can be observed (Alizadeh, pp. 43-47). The crude pottery of the Formative Ceramic phase (FIGURE 3) evolved into several outstanding classes of painted pottery, but the straw-tempered ware of the following Archaic Susiana 0 phase continued almost unchanged during the entire Archaic sequence.<br>The architectural evidence of the Formative Ceramic phase consisted of rectangular small houses with two or three rooms and usually an open court with some fire pits containing fire-cracked rocks. These simple nuclear family residences were built with the characteristic long, cigar-shaped mud bricks that continued to be used until the end of the Archaic period, and even into the Early Susiana period (ca. 5900 BCE). These architecturally awkward bricks have a surprisingly wide geographic distribution from the Susiana plain to southern and central Mesopotamia—for example, they have been found at Tell al-Owayli (Oueili; see Vallat, 1996, pp. 113-15, figs. 2-5) and at Čoḡā Māmi (Oates, p. 116, pl. 22:c)—and as far as Central Asia (Masson and Sarianidi, pp. 33-40, pl. 7). In addition to these peculiar bricks, stone and clay T-shaped figurines and a variety of simple coarse ware were shared by a number of early Neolithic cultures of southwest Asia. Exotic materials, not native to the region, consisted solely of obsidian blades and Persian Gulf shells. These non-local items may possibly have been procured by a trickle-down inter-regional exchange system.<br>No evidence of intramural burial was found at Coga Bonut during this and preceding phase. The absence of this crucial evidence renders it difficult to assess social status solely on the basis of the distribution of other artifacts, which seem homogeneous in all excavated areas. The evidence of architecture, however, points out to some type of social practice that, though not clearly understood, suggests communal activities at this early stage of social development. Two partially preserved buildings are all that were excavated from this phase (FIGURE 4). The better-preserved building may have had a non-domestic as well as domestic function. The plans of the buildings and the presence of numerous fire pits in them suggest non-domestic character or special status of these buildings as well, the nature of which can only be speculated. The possibility that an extended family resided in this building cannot be ruled out, however (Alizadeh, fig. 11).\" §REF§ (Alizadeh 2009, Encyclopedia Iranica Online, <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coga-bonut-archaeological-site\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coga-bonut-archaeological-site</a>) §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 22, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "<br>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "EgBadar", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800, "long_name": "Badarian", "new_name": "eg_badarian", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Badarian, a Neolithic archaeological culture located in Upper Egypt and dating from c. 4400 to 3300 BCE, was first described in 1928 by archaeologists Guy Brunton and Gertrude Caton-Thompson, who excavated in the Badari district near Assyut. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 138) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i> 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ Its relationship to an earlier culture, called the Tasian, is unclear, §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ but there is some evidence to link it to the later Naqada I period in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Little is known of the everyday lives of the people who occupied the Badarian sites: our information comes mainly from the numerous grave sites in the region around Assyut.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Research on Badarian sites has yielded a total of about 600 graves and 40 poorly documented settlements. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The culture was first identified in the el-Badari region, near the modern city of Sohag, but several small sites near the villages of Qau el-Kebir, Hammamiya, Mostagedda, and Matmar are also categorized as Badarian. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Characteristic Badarian material culture has also been discovered much further south at Mahgar Dendera, Armant, Elkab, and Hierakonpolis, as well as to the east of the Nile in the Wadi Hammamat. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The archaeology of the period has inevitably been affected by the flooding of the Nile over the millennia: any larger, more permanent settlements were likely situated close to the great river and subsequently washed away or covered with alluvium. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Surviving remains come from raised desert spurs and include 'huts and windbreaks associated with hearths and large, well-shaped granary pits or silos'. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 153) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i> 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ A Badarian settlement at Deir Tasa covered an area of about 5000 square metres. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 153) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i> 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ At the Seshat standard of 50-200 inhabitants per hectare, this gives us an estimated population between the range of 25 and 100 inhabitants.<br>Evidence from Badarian settlements shows that the people who occupied these sites were primarily engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry, §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ but we know trade also occurred. Badarians imported raw materials like wood, turquoise, shells and ivory and exchanged goods with groups from as far away as Palestine, the Red Sea and Syria. §REF§ (Trigger 1983, 29) Bruce G. Trigger. 1983. 'The Rise of Egyptian Civilization', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i> edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B Lloyd, 1-70. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Model boats found at the site of Merimda to the north 'suggest that boats and canoes were already in use [in Egypt] before 4500 B.C.' §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 157) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i> 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ <br>Very little can be concluded about Badarian political and social structure, but analysis of grave goods shows that there was an unequal distribution of wealth, and that the wealthier graves tended to be kept separate within the cemeteries. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ However, no monumental remains have been found so it is likely that higher-status members of society did not command a significant labour force.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 148, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels. Kenoyer writes that there is no evidence of the existence of an army even during the period 2600 BCE - 1900 BCE.§REF§Jonathan Mark Kenoyer. 'Uncovering the keys to the Lost Indus Cities', <i>Scientific American</i>, vol. 15, no. 1, 2005, p. 29.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "PkCeraN", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000, "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "new_name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jarrige, Jean-François, and Jean-François Enault. 1976. “Fouilles de Pirak - Baluchistan.” Arts Asiatiques 32 (1): 29-70. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q32UJUPX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q32UJUPX</a>. §REF§ The earliest evidence for agriculture here was found in Mehrgarh and dates to 7000 BCE. By 5500, the people of Mehrgarh had begun to rely more on bovine and ovicaprine pastoralism for their meat, as opposed to hunting. Starting from around this time, there is also an increase in the number of known farming settlements in the region, most notably Kili Ghul Mohammad, Anjira, Siah Damb, and Rana Gundai. There is evidence for an increased range of craft activities and the first granaries appeared in Mehrgarh, as well as, perhaps, small-scale irrigation. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 57-61) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It is not possible to give an accurate estimate of the region's population at this time, §REF§ (Possehl 1999, 472) Possehl, Gregory L. 1999. Indus Age: The Beginnings. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWNUD7IH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWNUD7IH</a>. §REF§ and the size of occupied Mehrgarh is uncertain, as the population shifted over time and part of the site has been cut away by the Bolan River. §REF§ (Jarrige 2013, 135-154) Jarrige, J.-F. 2013. Mehrgarh Neolithic. Paris: Éditions de Boccard. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MKZA34B\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MKZA34B</a>. §REF§ Similarly, the literature does not provide many clues as to the political organization of Mehrgarh or any other site in the region during the period, although the appearance of granaries at Mehrgarh may suggest increasing social complexity. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 61) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 38, "name": "Pakistan", "subregions_list": "Pakistan", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 93, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " levels. \"There are very few signs of status differentiation amongst the few burials known. Most settlements were simple collections of huts with no evidence for internal differentiation in architecture or material culture than might suggest clear-cut divisions in society.\" §REF§G. Barker, Mediterranean Valley (1995), p. 156§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 1, "military_level_to": 1, "polity": { "id": 179, "name": "ItLatBA", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -900, "long_name": "Latium - Bronze Age", "new_name": "it_latium_ba", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Italian Bronze Age (Età del Bronzo) starts at the tail end of the Eneolithic, but enters its mature phase between 1800 and 1200 BCE (Middle Bronze Age, Età del Bronzo Media), and begins its transition towards the Iron Age between 1200 and 1000 (Late Bronze Age, Tarda Età del Bronzo). §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32-33) Tim Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ §REF§ (Anzidei, Sestieri and De Santis 1985, 113-48) Anna Paola Anzidei, Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri and Anna De Santis. 1985. <i>Roma e il Lazio dall'età della pietra alla formazione della città</i>. Rome: Quasar. §REF§ Because Middle Bronze Age material culture is remarkably uniform throughout the peninsula, §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32) Tim Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ it is difficult to single out any developments that specifically distinguish Latium, the region of Central Italy that roughly corresponds to modern-day Lazio. However, it is worth noting that most sites of this period cluster along the Apennine mountain range; for this reason, Italian Bronze Age culture is sometimes referred to as 'Apennine culture' (<i>cultura appenninica</i>). §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32) Tim Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ In the Late Bronze Age, the main cultural traditions were the Subapennine (12th century BCE, <i>subappenninica</i>) and the Proto-Villanovan (11th and 10th centuries BCE, <i>protovillanoviana</i>) §REF§ (Anzidei, Sestieri and De Santis 1985, 137-39) Anna Paola Anzidei, Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri and Anna De Santis. 1985. <i>Roma e il Lazio dall'età della pietra alla formazione della città</i>. Rome: Quasar. §REF§ These traditions brought greater sophistication in agricultural techniques, a greater number and variety of agricultural tools, and advances in metalworking. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32-33) Tim Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It is difficult to infer much about the political organization of the average Italian settlement, either in the Middle or in the Late Bronze Age. There are very few signs of status differentiation, whether in burials, architecture, or material culture more generally. §REF§ (Barker 1995, 156) Graeme Barker. 1995. <i>A Mediterranean Valley: Landscape Archaeology and Annales History in the Biferno Valley</i>. London: Leicester University Press. §REF§ <br>Population was probably sparse up to the Middle Bronze Age in Italy, with settlements of no more than a few dozen inhabitants each. In contrast, the Late Bronze Age witnessed a significant demographic increase, suggested by an increased number of sites and increased site size. Settlements were probably home to a few hundred inhabitants. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32-33) Tim Cornell. 1995. <i>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC)</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }