Military Level List
A viewset for viewing and editing Military Levels.
GET /api/sc/military-levels/?ordering=-description
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N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) <i>Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe</i>, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ Several technological and social changes marked this period, taking place in an area expanding over what is now the south of England, west and central France, and Flanders, §REF§ (Mordant 2013, 573) Mordant, Claude. 2013. The Bronze Age in France. In Fokkens, H. and A. Harding (eds) The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age, pp. 571-593. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QX9UG55P\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QX9UG55P</a>. §REF§ but also Portugal and Spain. §REF§ (Otte 2008, 276) Otte, Marcel. 2008. La protohistoire, 2è édition. Bruxelles: de Boeck. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2PQEDZ2I\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2PQEDZ2I</a>. §REF§ Metals were used to craft new types of weapons and ornaments, beginning with copper and then bronze axes, used for working wood and individual defence, §REF§ (Ghesquière in Macigny et al. 2005, 23) Cyril Marcigny, Cécile Colonna, Emmanuel Ghesquière, Guy Verron (eds) 2005. La Normandie à l'aube de l'Histoire. Les découvertes archéologiques de l’âge du Bronze 2300-800 av. J.C. Somogy, Paris. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ZA57Q27\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ZA57Q27</a> §REF§ and culminating in more complex forms of weaponry like swords, daggers and halberds. §REF§ (Ghesquière in Macigny et al 2005, 23) Marcigny, Cyril, Cécile Colonna, Emmanuel Ghesquière, and Guy Verron. 2005. La Normandie à L’aube de L'histoire : Les Découvertes Archéologiques de L'âge Du Bronze 2300-800 Av. J.-C. Paris: Somogy éd. d’art. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ZA57Q27\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ZA57Q27</a>. §REF§ However, most of the artefacts characterizing this period were items of personal jewellery such as torcs, anklets, and pins. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 413) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) <i>Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe</i>, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ The trade of these materials formed a vast European network of exchange. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 413) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) <i>Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe</i>, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Over the course of the Early Bronze Age, several trends originating in the Beaker period were reinforced: political integration was one of them. Two tiers of social hierarchy can be inferred from burial patterns. While most of these differences were tied to individual achievements over one's lifetime, social status could also be inherited. Indeed, children have been found in elite burials containing prestigious items, contrasting with the much simpler tombs of commoners. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 413) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) <i>Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe</i>, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ <br>The construction of fortified settlements intensified, following a two-tiered settlement hierarchy. Simple hamlets corresponded to one or more extended families. Elsewhere, small fortified towns were built on raised areas of land and surrounded by walls and ditches. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 412-413) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) <i>Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe</i>, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 347, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "§REF§Christie 1998: 118. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/975BEGKF§REF§§REF§Clayton 2021: 162. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4N2ZFRX8§REF§: 1. King :: 2. War Chiefs ::: 3. Warriors ", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "polity": { "id": 305, "name": "ItLombr", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 774, "long_name": "Lombard Kingdom", "new_name": "it_lombard_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>The Lombard were a Germanic tribe who, by the end of the 5th century CE, had settled their territory north of the Danube River, which corresponds approximately to the area that is now modern-day Austria. Under the rule of Alboin, the Lombards invaded and migrated to a defenceless Italy in 568 CE, and within a year had conquered and occupied all major cities north of the Po River.§REF§“Lombard | People | Britannica”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/E6RFZXRD§REF§<br>When they arrived in Italy the Lombards were divided into clans, each with its own war-leader, but by the middle of the seventh century a monarchy had been established which led to a centralised authority which each of the clans ‘dukes’ were answerable to.§REF§Peters 2003: x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X4ETPHA7§REF§<br>In 773 CE the Franks under Charlemagne, and in alliance with Pope Adrian I, invaded Italy. After a year of siege they captured the city of Pavia and the Lombards surrendered to Charlemagne. He became the ruler of both the Lombards and the Franks, and Lombardian rule in Italy came to an end.§REF§“Lombard | People | Britannica”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/E6RFZXRD§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-13T10:38:50.063861Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 204, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "§REF§B. N. Mukherjee, 'The Rise and Fall of the Kushana Empire' (Calcutta, 1988), p. 338§REF§<br>1. Kushana king<br>2. Chiang (military general), Dandanayaka, Mahadandanayaka<br>3. Baladhika (commander of an army)<br>4.<br>5.<br>6. Common soldiers<br><i>likely to have been at least one level between the commander of the army and the ordinary soldier, especially as the organization was complex enough to warrant a general above a commander of an army. changing code to range of 4-6</i><br>NOTE: Dandanayaka and Mahadandanayaka may have referred to a judge, magistrate, head police-officer or an army general. They may have have been used to perform judicial, civil and military duties at different times or as the occasions demanded.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 6, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "AfKushn", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319, "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "new_name": "af_kushan_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kushan Empire was a confederated state headed by an absolute or near absolute military monarchy. Little is known of its early history due to the scarcity of written records, but it appears to have been founded in Bactria, Central Asia in the mid-1st century CE when Kujula Kadphises united the five tribes of the Yuezhi confederation. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2005, 335-37) Sinopoli, Carla M. 2005. “Imperial Landscapes of South Asia.” In Archaeology of Asia, edited by Miriam T. Stark, 324-49. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ73UGSF\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ73UGSF</a>. §REF§ <br>The Kushan state, as chronicled by the <i>Hou Hanshu</i> (a Chinese text), expanded from Bactria and Sogdiana into Gandhara (in modern-day Pakistan) and northern India. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2005, 335-37) Sinopoli, Carla M. 2005. “Imperial Landscapes of South Asia.” In Archaeology of Asia, edited by Miriam T. Stark, 324-49. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ73UGSF\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ73UGSF</a>. §REF§ Kushan coins recovered from excavations across this region are a key source of evidence for the expansion of the empire and reveal that Kushan monarchs took a syncretistic approach to religion and culture, utilizing Buddhist, Iranian, Hellenistic and Indian iconography. §REF§ (Neelis n.d.) Neelis, Jason. nd. “The Kushan Empire.” University of Washington: Silk Road Seattle. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/exhibit/kushans/essay.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/exhibit/kushans/essay.html</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Historians are uncertain exactly how the Kushan Empire was governed. According to Rafi-us Samad, the Kushans were 'great conquerors but poor administrators' and the stable administration of the capital was to a large degree reliant on the Buddhist establishment. §REF§ (Samad 2011, 90-91) Samad, Rafi-us. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. New York: Algora Pub. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=777134\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=777134</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EI23K8AX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EI23K8AX</a>. §REF§ Nevertheless, the historian B. N. Puri has described the Kushan king's powers as 'unfettered' by any kind of advisory body comparable to those found in the Mauryan period in northern India. §REF§ (Puri 1994, 254) Puri, B. N. 1994. “The Kushans.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. II: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B.C. to A.D. 250, edited by János Harmatta, B. N. Puri, and G. F. Etemadi, 239-55. Paris: UNESCO. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CW6B4KVV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CW6B4KVV</a>. §REF§ The state chancery used both the Bactrian language, written using the Greek alphabet, and Gandhari, written in the Kharosthi script. §REF§ (Grenet 2012, 1-2) Grenet, Frantz. 2012. “The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire (1st-3rd Century AD).” Journal of Central Eurasian Studies, no. 3: 1-22. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TMRCJ9QP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TMRCJ9QP</a>. §REF§ <br>One theory holds that the political structure of the empire was characterized by 'hierarchical organization in a feudatory system'. Another view suggests the Kushan state included a mixture of both bureaucratic and feudal elements. The further south into the Indian subcontinent and the further from the capitals one went, the more independent the outer satraps became. §REF§ (Mukherjee 1998, 448) Mukherjee, Bratindra Nath. 1988. The Rise and Fall of the Kushānạ Empire. Calcutta: Firma KLM. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/97W9PEID\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/97W9PEID</a>. §REF§ <br>The literature does not provide reliable estimates for the population of the Kushan Empire.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 8, "name": "Afghanistan", "subregions_list": "Afghanistan", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 288, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "§REF§(Nicolle 1996)§REF§<br>Note that in 1073 CE Badr al-Jamali \"transformed the army\" and thereafter the Fatimid Caliphate was dominated by \"military wazirs\".§REF§(Hamblin 2005, 749) Shillington, K. ed. 2005. Encyclopedia of African History: A - G.. 1. Taylor & Francis.§REF§<br>1. Caliph<br>2. Wazir3. Commander of commanders (\"amir al-umara\")4. Commander5. Assistant commander6. Khassa (grade I)7. Khassa (grade II)8. Khassa (grade III)*<br>\"three grades of Khassa\"9. QaidLowest unit = groups of 10 men.§REF§(Nicolle 1996, 65)§REF§<br>\"the Kutama were organized in cohorts ('irdfa) under their respective commanders (Curafta). The question whether the cohorts were organized along tribal lines or in terms of military needs remains unanswered.\"§REF§(Lev 1987, 353)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "military_level", "military_level_from": 7, "military_level_to": 9, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "TnFatim", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171, "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "new_name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Fatimid Caliphate lasted from 909 to 1171 CE. After a failed uprising against the Sunni Abbasids in Syria, the head of the Ismaili Shi'a religious movement - who claimed descent from Muhammad's daughter Fatimah by way of her descendent Ismail - fled to Tunisia. There, with the help of local Berber warriors, he 'seized Ifriqiya - modern Tunisia and Eastern Algeria - took over the trans-Saharan gold-and-slave trade, built two great capitals - first Kairouan, then nearby Mahdiyya - and set up an autonomous state far from the reach of Baghdad'. §REF§ (Man 1999, 74) John Man. 1999. <i>Atlas of the Year 1000</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ From there, the Fatimids conquered much of North Africa, extending their rule into Egypt. The effective end of the Fatimid Caliphate occurred at the end of the 11th century (though the Caliphate remained nominally intact for nearly another century). At this time, a series of Fatimid viziers increased their control of the military and, ruling from their own palaces, turned the imam-caliph into a nominal figurehead. §REF§ (Walker 2006, 88) Paul E. Walker. 2006. 'The Relationship Between Chief Qadi and Chief Da'i under the Fatimids', in <i>Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies</i>, edited by Gudrun Kramer and Sabine Schmidtke, 70-94. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Over many years in the final century, the Fatimid state experienced a long decline marked by incompetent viziers. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 73) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Although relatively little is known about the Fatimid bureaucracy during the early period (909-969 CE), we can say that it did not have a vizier. §REF§ (Walker 2011, 104) Paul E. Walker. 2011. 'Responsibilities of Political Office in a Shi'i Caliphate and the Delineation of Public Duties under the Fatimids', in <i>Islam, the State, and Political Authority: Medieval Issues and Modern Concerns</i>, edited by A. Afsaruddin, 93-110. London: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In Tunisia, the Fatimids used slave eunuchs to command army and naval forces, and, following the precedent of previous Islamic governments, founded cities as administrative and military centres and seats for their courts. §REF§ (Yaacov 1991, 4) Yaacov Lev. 1991. <i>State and Society in Fatimid Egypt</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. §REF§ Suggesting the presence of a highly capable full-time bureaucracy, one of their purpose-built cities, the second capital Mansuriyya (948-975 CE), was supplied with fresh water from a distant spring via an aqueduct 'modelled on the Roman system at Carthage'. §REF§ (Qutbuddin 2011, 39) Tahera Qutbuddin. 2011. 'Fatimids', in <i>Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia, Volume 2: Africa</i>, edited by Edward Ramsamy, 37-40. Los Angeles: Sage. §REF§ <br>In 969 CE, the Fatimids conquered Egypt under a military general called Jawhar. This brought the total land area under Fatimid control to 2.4 million square kilometres, §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 10) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and the new capital city, al-Qahira (Cairo), was founded in 975 and remained the capital under the fall of the dynasty in 1171. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 241) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In Egypt the vizier, a staple of Islamic Egyptian government, was introduced to Fatimid professional administration, which may suggest that the Fatimids retained much of the lower administration present during the Ikshidid Period as well. Heads of administration are known for the military, treasury, religion, missionary activities, and the judiciary. §REF§ (Hamblin 2004) William J. Hamblin. 2013. 'Egypt: Fatimids, Later (1073-1171): Army and Administration', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ Before 1073 CE, the vizier was a slave who did not have military powers. Between 1073 and 1121, he became the military chief and effectively replaced the iman-caliph as head of government. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 243) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The imam-caliph retreated into a palace that contained a harem run by a 'hierarchical corps of eunuchs'. §REF§ (Hamblin 2004) William J. Hamblin. 2013. 'Egypt: Fatimids, Later (1073-1171): Army and Administration', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>Provinces were ruled through vassals. After the foundation of Cairo, North Africa was 'abandoned' to the Zirid (972-1148 CE) and Hammadid (1015-1152 CE) Dynasties. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 242) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Within Egypt, two cities enjoyed a measure of self-rule: Fustat was governed by a <i>wali</i> (governor) §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 65) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and Alexandria also had its own budget and chief judge. §REF§ (Sanders 1998, 167) Paula A. Sanders. 1998. 'The Fatimid State, 969-1171', in <i>The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1: Islamic Egypt, 640-1517</i>, edited by Carl F. Petry, 151-74. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The rest of Egypt was divided into seven districts, §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 108) James E. Lindsay. 2005. <i>Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§ which may have been commanded by <i>amirs</i> (military governors). Towns with markets would have a <i>muhtasib</i>, who oversaw shopkeepers' and artisans' activities and ensured that religious law was correctly observed. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 65) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The Fatimids repaired and improved dams and canals §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 16) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and Egypt grew exceptionally prosperous under their rule, especially before the mid-10th century. Al-Qahira had eight public baths, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 54) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ a caravanserai (<i>funduq</i>) for foreign merchants, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 41) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and possibly the most famous market in the Islamic world at the time, called the Market of the Lamps (Suq al-Qanadil). §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 42) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The 10th-century geographer al-Muqaddasi described Suq al-Qanadil as 'the marketplace for all mankind ... It is the storehouse of the Occident, the entrepot of the Orient.' §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 106) James E. Lindsay. 2005. <i>Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§ Another contemporary traveller, Nasir-i Khusraw, reported that in Cairo the shops were 'all the sultan's property' and leased to the shop owners, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 54) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ underscoring the power of the caliphs and their dedication to public works.<br>The population of the Fatimid Caliphate peaked at about 12-13 million in 1000 CE, but subsequently declined as territory was lost to about 4 million in 1100 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 219-29, 141-47) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ By the end of the 10th century, the population of the caliphate was roughly equivalent to that of Egypt. The city of Fustat, close to Cairo, had approximately 120,000 residents, even after the fire of 1168, and multiple sources report multi-storey residential homes with up to seven levels. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 62, 65, 78) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 330, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "levels.1.King :2. Jagarafs (captain-generals) ::3. Jagodims :::“The Portuguese trader, Andre Alvares d’Almada, was particularly stuck by the efficiency of its military organization. Two captains-general, the jagarafs (or jaraf), were set over all the village chiefs, or jagodims: ‘When the King wishes to raise an army he has only to tell the two jagarafs, who transmit his orders to the jagodims, and each of these assembles his men; so that in a short time he has raised a large army, including many horsemen on mounts purchased from the Fulani and Moors.” §REF§ (Ly-Tall 1984, 183) Ly-Tall, M. 1984. ‘The Decline of the Mali Empire’. In Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/6NWXJD94/collection §REF§ 4. individual soldiers", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 4, "military_level_to": 4, "polity": { "id": 675, "name": "se_saloum_k", "start_year": 1490, "end_year": 1863, "long_name": "Kingdom of Saloum", "new_name": "se_saloum_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Saloum was a Sereer Kingdom that originated in 1490 CE. §REF§ (Ly-Tall 1984, 183) Ly-Tall, M. 1984. ‘The Decline of the Mali Empire’. In Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/6NWXJD94/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/6NWXJD94/collection</a> §REF§ The Kingdom of Saloum was part of the confederation of the Jolof Empire up until the mid-sixteenth century when it became an independent kingdom after the breakup of the Jolof Empire. The Kingdom of Saloum thus established its capital in Kahone after its independence. The Kingdom of Saloum heavily participated in trade, particularly the peanut trade, with the Dutch, French and the British. §REF§ (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection</a> §REF§ In 1863, the forces of Maba Jakhu Ba led a jihad and conquered the Kingdom of Saloum officially ending its traditional rule. §REF§ (Babou 2007, 41) Babou, Cheikh Anta Mbacke. 2007. Fighting the Greater Jihad: Amadu Bamba and the Founding of the Muridiyya of Senegal 1853-1913. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/J8IUBWDD/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/J8IUBWDD/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 333, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "levels.1. King :2. Umugaba (general) ::\"Moreover, Ndori increased the social distance between his warriors and himself by placing his army under the command of a general (umugaba).\"§REF§(Vansina 2004: 61) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/5J4MRHUB/collection.§REF§ ::3. Soldiers", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 3, "polity": { "id": 687, "name": "Early Niynginya", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1897, "long_name": "Kingdom of Nyinginya", "new_name": "Early Niynginya", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_EAST", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-06-13T09:26:46.862473Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 2, "name": "East Africa", "subregions_list": "Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 46, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 339, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "levels. Three levels specifically mentioned in the consulted sources. It is likely that there were various tiers of officers giving orders to infantry therefore, officers are inferred. Possible that more levels were present. :1. Nayaks : “In return for this, they were to pay tribute to the Nayak of one-third of their income from land, and maintain, with another third part, the troops which their master would require in case of war.” §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 74) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection §REF§ ::2. Polegar (military governor or administrator) :: “The status and power of the various polegars could not have been the same; it is extremely unlikely that all of the had equally good record of past service and equal possessions. In course of time at least, there would have been changes in their attitude and position. Consequently, their obligations would have been different. Vico’s letter of 1611 says that ‘Hermecatte’ (Erumaikatti), a powerful polegar, very influential at court, has domains enough to be obliged to maintain for the Nayak’s service three thousand infantry, two hundred horses and fifty elephants.” §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 74) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection §REF§ :::3 Officers (inferred) ::::4. Infantry :::: “Vico’s letter of 1611 says that ‘Hermecatte’ (Erumaikatti), a powerful polegar, very influential at court, has domains enough to be obliged to maintain for the Nayak’s service three thousand infantry, two hundred horses and fifty elephants.” §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 74) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 4, "polity": { "id": 705, "name": "in_madurai_nayaks", "start_year": 1529, "end_year": 1736, "long_name": "Nayaks of Madurai", "new_name": "in_madurai_nayaks", "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI", "general_description": "The Nayaks of Madurai were rulers of South Tamil Nadu. The Nayaks were originally agents of the Vijayangara Empire but came independent rulers under Visvanatha Nayaka around 1529 CE. The Nayaks of Madurai had their initial capital at Madurai but moved the capital to Tiruchirappalli from 1616 CE – 1634 CE and again from 1665 CE – 1736 CE. §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 2-24) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Pottamkulam, 2021) Pottamkulam, George Abraham. 2021. Tamilnadu A Journey in Time Part II: People, Places and Potpourri. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/25RBPDP2/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/25RBPDP2/collection</a> §REF§ The Nayaks were responsible for temple constructions, particularly under Tirumala Nayaka who was patronized the expansion of the Minaksi-Sundaresvara temple in the capital. The Nayaks of Madurai were Shaivist Hindus and celebrated many religious festivals within their temple complexes. §REF§ (Branfoot 2001, 191-227) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection</a> §REF§ The Nayaks of Madurai were also lucrative in trade connecting with the Dutch East Indian Company and the Portuguese. §REF§ (Vink 2015, 179-183) Vink, Markus. 2015. Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9U7MCK4E/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9U7MCK4E/collection</a> §REF§<br> By the end of the 17th century CE, the Nayaks of Madurai were in decline and by 1736, the Nayaks were succeeded by the Carnatic Sultanate after the suicide of the last Nayak Queen, Minaski. §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 1) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 338, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "levels. Three levels mentioned within the consulted sources. Officers inferred as it is likely that someone was directly supervising the soldiers. Probably multiple tiers of officers, but this should be confirmed by an expert. :1. Nawab (king) : “From the 1770s the British systematically tried to control the nawab’s armies by extending him loans to pay the soldiers’ wages.” §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection §REF§ ::2. Subadhar (Chief of military) :: “The Navaiyat dynasty came to power when Saadutullah Khan was appointed subadhar, or chief of military and revenue officer of the newly established Mughal subah of Arcot in 1710. The Navaiyats, wanting to take advantage of the relative weakness of the links to the Mughal centre, and wanting to carve out an independent dynastic rule for themselves, quickly fell into the traditional pattern of empire-building. They extended existing citadels like Vellore and Gingee by ‘importing’ North Indian traders, artisans and soldiers; they established a number of new market centres; they founded and endowed mosques; and they invited poets, artists and scholars and Sufi holy men to the new capital of Arcot.” §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection §REF§ :::3. Officers (inferred) ::::4. Soldiers", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 4, "polity": { "id": 701, "name": "in_carnatic_sul", "start_year": 1710, "end_year": 1801, "long_name": "Carnatic Sultanate", "new_name": "in_carnatic_sul", "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI", "general_description": "The Carnatic Sultanate originated as a vassal state of the Mughal Empire. In 1710 CE The Navaiyat dynasty under Saadutullah Khan became the first nawab of the Carnatic. The Carnatic Sultanate had its capital at Arcot. The Carnatic nawabs practiced Sufi Islam and their court language was Persian. §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Ramaswami 1984, 329) Ramaswami, N.S. 1984. Political History of Carnatic Under the Nawabs. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PTIS9MB4/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PTIS9MB4/collection</a> §REF§ The Carnatic Sultanate contributed to the building of mosques, Hindu temples and educational centres. The nawabs benefitted heavily from trade and support with the British East India Company. §REF§ (Ramaswami 1984, 333) Ramaswami, N.S. 1984. Political History of Carnatic Under the Nawabs. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PTIS9MB4/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PTIS9MB4/collection</a> §REF§ By the turn of the nineteenth century the British East India Company took control of the entire Carnatic region. The nawabs of the Carnatic continued to survive until 1855 CE as dependents of the British rule. §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 336, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "levels. Three levels mentioned in the consulted sources. Highly likely there were more specific levels.:1. King : “The military administration was efficiently organized and a regular army was associated with each ruler.” §REF§ (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection §REF§ ::2. Military Commanders :: “During the Sangam period, hereditary monarchy was the form of government. The king was assisted by a wide body of officials who were categorized into five councils. They were ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), envoys (thuthar), military commanders (senapathi), and spies (orrar).” §REF§ (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection §REF§ :::3. Army soldiers ::: “The military administration was efficiently organized and a regular army was associated with each ruler.” §REF§ (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection §REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Military_level", "military_level_from": 3, "military_level_to": 5, "polity": { "id": 698, "name": "in_cholas_1", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 300, "long_name": "Early Cholas", "new_name": "in_cholas_1", "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI", "general_description": "The Early Cholas were a northern kingdom in Tamil Nadu and part of the three ruling kingdoms of Early Cholas, Chera and Pandya who ruled over Tamilakam in the late last millennium BCE and early first millennium CE. §REF§ (Abraham 2003) Abraham, Shinu A. 2003. ‘Chera, Chola, Pandya: Using Archaeological Evidence to Identify the Tamil Kingdoms of Early Historic South India’. Asian Perspectives 42 (2): 207–23. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MIRRQD2C/ §REF§ The Early Cholas had their capital at Uraiyur and their main trading port at Kaveripumpattinam. §REF§ (Singh 2008, 384) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. London: Pearson Education. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection</a> §REF§ The Early Cholas practiced Hinduism and it is said that the Chola king Kochchenganan built 70 temples in honour of Shiva. §REF§ (Agnihotri 1988, 350) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Ramachandran 2018, 204) Ramachandran, R. 2018. A History of Hinduism: The Past, Present and Future. New Delhi: Sage. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/XBIURS7C/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/XBIURS7C/collection</a> §REF§The Early Cholas had important trade connections that linked through all of Tamil Nadu and coins from this period also reveal trade links with the Romans. §REF§ (Singh 2008, 384) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. London: Pearson Education. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Raman 1976, 55) Raman, K.V. 1976. ‘Archaeology of the Sangam Age’. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol 37. Pp 50-56. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/M3ZPI56I/collection\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/M3ZPI56I/collection</a> §REF§ Sometime in the 3rd century CE, the three kingdoms of the Early Cholas, Chera and Pandya declined and were succeeded by the Kalabhra dynasty. §REF§ (Srinivansan, 2021) Srinivasan, Raghavan. 2021. Rajaraja Chola: Interplay Between an Imperial Regime and Productive Forces of Society. Mumbai: Leadstart Publishing Pvt Ltd. 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