| Variable | Definition |
|---|---|
| Polity | The Seshat Polity ID |
| Year(s) | The years for which we have the data. [negative = BCE] |
| Tag | [Evidenced, Disputed, Suspected, Inferred, Unknown] |
| Verified | A Seshat Expert has approved this piece of data. |
| Variable | Definition |
|---|---|
| bridge | The absence or presence of bridge for a polity. |
| # | Polity | Year(s) | Bridge | Description | Edit |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 271 |
(Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico) |
Full Year Range of Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico is assumed. [-100, 99] |
unknown |
Regional and long-distance trade (crossing rivers) was common,§REF§Grove, David C. (2000) "The Preclassic Societies of the Central Highlands of Mesoamerica." In Richard Adams and Murdo MacLeod (eds.), The Cambridge History of The Native Peoples of the Americas, Volume II: Mesoamerica, Part I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg.122-151.§REF§§REF§Plunket, P., & Uruñuela, G. (2012). Where east meets west: the Formative in Mexico’s central highlands. Journal of Archaeological Research, 20(1), 1-51.§REF§ but no evidence of bridges exists in the limited archaeological record of the Early Formative | |
| 272 |
(Oaxaca - San Jose) |
Full Year Range of Oaxaca - San Jose is assumed. [-1150, -700] |
absent |
Sources do not suggest there is evidence for bridges in this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ | |
| 273 |
(Oaxaca - Tierras Largas) |
Full Year Range of Oaxaca - Tierras Largas is assumed. [-1400, -1150] |
absent |
Sources do not suggest there is evidence for bridges in this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ | |
| 274 |
(Inca Empire) |
Full Year Range of Inca Empire is assumed. [1375, 1532] |
present |
Officials responsible for bridges §REF§(Bauer 2004, 22)§REF§ Rope suspension bridges on thick grass cables which had to be remade every year. §REF§(Kaufmann and Kaufmann 2012)§REF§ Example at the Apurimac river: Keshwa Cacha. §REF§http://www.slate.com/articles/life/world_of_wonders/2011/02/the_last_incan_grass_bridge.html§REF§ | |
| 275 |
(Wari Empire) |
Full Year Range of Wari Empire is assumed. [650, 999] |
present |
"In the case of the Wari Empire, a major administrative structure was needed, but there was no local political organization to use as a foundation for this structure. As a result, it had to build from the ground up: a large center, small satellite centers, terraces to increase agricultural production, new villages nearer the terraced zone, a road system, a bridge, etc." §REF§(Schreiber 1987, 281)§REF§. Example from the Carahuarazo valley. | |
| 276 |
(Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial) |
Full Year Range of Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial is assumed. [1734, 1883] |
present |
According to SCCS variable 14 'Routes of Land Transport' only ‘1’ or 'unimproved trails' were used for land transport, not roads. The Orokaiva constructed wooden bridges or gangways: 'Bridges. Formerly, I am told, stretches of swamp were spanned by single logs supported on cross-trestles. The modern type of this bridge has an adzed surface to make walking safer, and is certainly preferable to the other style (viz. a raised gangway with clumsily laid cross-pieces) until, as is so often the case, the log is found to be slippery and aslant. Small creeks are crossed by single tree-trunks, over which the native, a fearless balancer, walks without misgiving, despite the queer and disconcerting vibrations set up by his footsteps on a long log.' §REF§Williams, F. E. (Francis Edgar), and Hubert Murray 1930. “Orokaiva Society”, 72§REF§ | |
| 277 |
(Orokaiva - Colonial) |
Full Year Range of Orokaiva - Colonial is assumed. [1884, 1942] |
present |
According to SCCS variable 14 'Routes of Land Transport' only ‘1’ or 'unimproved trails' were used for land transport, not roads. The Orokaiva constructed wooden bridges or gangways: 'Bridges. Formerly, I am told, stretches of swamp were spanned by single logs supported on cross-trestles. The modern type of this bridge has an adzed surface to make walking safer, and is certainly preferable to the other style (viz. a raised gangway with clumsily laid cross-pieces) until, as is so often the case, the log is found to be slippery and aslant. Small creeks are crossed by single tree-trunks, over which the native, a fearless balancer, walks without misgiving, despite the queer and disconcerting vibrations set up by his footsteps on a long log.' §REF§Williams, F. E. (Francis Edgar), and Hubert Murray 1930. “Orokaiva Society”, 72§REF§ By the time of the Mt. Lamington eruption, the colonial authorities had built bridges for its own infrastructural needs: 'When the volcano erupted on 21 January 1951, Koropatans noticed the dark smoke and cloud and saw ash and stones carried through the air. The survivors including the sick moved to Wairope on the Kumusi bridge. A married couple from Koropata, Stephenson Kareka and Flora Amaupa, evoked the scene: ‘There was no water and no food as both had been spoiled by the lava and ash. The government supplied food. They flew in rice and fish. The people stayed at Wairope for three months. After that time, Bishop David Hand sent the people back to the villages as the volcano had finished …’' §REF§Newton, Janice 1985. “Orokaiva Production And Change”, 59§REF§ [Even in colonial settlements, services were of a makeshift character.] | |
| 278 |
(Khanate of Bukhara) |
Full Year Range of Khanate of Bukhara is assumed. [1599, 1747] |
present |
"Trade was carried on for the most part along heavily travelled land routes, but also along waterways, especially the Amu Darya. For instance, ‘from the Kelif quayside at Termez, where the corn grows well and ripens early’, boats left laden with corn for Khwarazm. As the Bukhara khanate split up into semi- independent principalities, trade was hindered by numerous toll stations on roads, bridges and ferries." §REF§(Mukminova 2003, 53)§REF§ | |
| 279 |
(Samanid Empire) |
Full Year Range of Samanid Empire is assumed. [819, 999] |
present |
Samanid bridge over the Shahrud.§REF§(Gangler, Gaube, Petruccioli 2004, 104) Gangler, Anette. Gaube, Heinz. Petruccioli, Attilio. 2004. Bukhara, the Eastern Dome of Islam: Urban Development, Urban Space, Architecture and Population. Edition Axel Menges.§REF§ | |
| 280 |
(Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II) |
Full Year Range of Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II is assumed. [1649, 1918] |
present |
“Though some division of labor took place during the eighteenth century, nobles as a class remained responsible for oversight of taxation for military purposes; upkeep of bridges, roads, and hospitals; village government; regulation of building projects, commerce and trade policy; property registration and surveying; and police and fire protection.”§REF§(Fichtner 2003: 77) Fichtner, Paula Sutter. 2003. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QQ77TV4K§REF§ |