Non Phonetic Writing List
A viewset for viewing and editing Non-Phonetic Writings.
GET /api/sc/non-phonetic-writings/?ordering=-non_phonetic_writing
{ "count": 292, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/non-phonetic-writings/?ordering=-non_phonetic_writing&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 80, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "non_phonetic_writing", "non_phonetic_writing": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 85, "name": "InDecNL", "start_year": -2700, "end_year": -1200, "long_name": "Deccan - Neolithic", "new_name": "in_deccan_nl", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The South Indian Neolithic lasted from about 3000 to 1200 BCE. Here we are particularly interested in the northern part of the modern-day Indian state of Karnataka, where Neolithic communities appear to have been small, egalitarian, and reliant on pastoralism (mostly cattle), agriculture (mostly millet and pulses), and hunting and gathering. The prevalence of cattle motifs in rock art, as well as the number of ashmounds (large mounds of burned cattle dung) dotting the landscape, point to the symbolic importance of cattle in South Indian Neolithic ideology as a whole. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 62-65) Johansen, Peter. 2014. “The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India.” Journal of Social Archaeology 14 (1): 59-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The presence of only minor variations in house size, design and content, as well as in mortuary practices, suggests an egalitarian society during this period. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 63) Johansen, Peter. 2014. “The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India.” Journal of Social Archaeology 14 (1): 59-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR</a>. §REF§ No population estimates are provided by the literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 60, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "non_phonetic_writing", "non_phonetic_writing": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 450, "name": "FrHallB", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -700, "long_name": "Hallstatt B2-3", "new_name": "fr_hallstatt_b2_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Hallstatt culture, named after an archaeological site in Austria and traditionally divided into four phases, was the main cultural complex in Western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It coincides with the North Alpine complex, extending over modern-day central and southern Germany, northern Italy, and Switzerland. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the Hallstatt B period (c. 1000-800 BCE), §REF§ (CNRS-ENS 2017) CNRS-ENS. 2017. “Atlas de L’âge Du Fer.” Accessed July 7. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/patlas\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/patlas</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HUKZMF9J\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HUKZMF9J</a>. §REF§ the North Alpine cultural complex gradually became incorporated in trade networks dominated by Greek and Etruscan settlements. Hallstatt chiefs mediated the supply of Mediterranean prestige goods in their own spheres of exchange. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ <br>The average scale of integration of Hallstatt B polities extended to include land within a roughly 25-kilometre radius. §REF§ (Brun 2007, 381) Brun, Patrice. 2007. “Une Période de Transition Majeure En Europe: De La Fin Du IVe Au Début Du IIe s. Av. J.-C.(La Tène B2 et C).” In <i>La Gaule Dans Son Contexte Européen Aux IV e et III e Siècle Avant Notre Ère</i>, edited by Christine Mennessier-Jouannet, Anne-Marie Adam, and Pierre-Yves Milcent, 377-84. Lattes: Edition de l’Association pour le Développement de l’Archéologie en Languedoc-Roussillon. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ</a>. §REF§ The maximal territorial extent of polities could be as much as 1000 square kilometres, as in the case of Wessex. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ <br>In this period, a three-tiered settlement hierarchy can be discerned archaeologically. Previous units fragmented: new autonomous communities polarized around fortified sites, the proportion of which increased. Tumuli became a more noticeable feature in the Hallstatt B landscape, and iron-working activity became much more prevalent. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 15) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 61, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "non_phonetic_writing", "non_phonetic_writing": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 451, "name": "FrHallC", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -600, "long_name": "Hallstatt C", "new_name": "fr_hallstatt_c", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Hallstatt culture, named after an archaeological site in Austria and traditionally divided into four phases, was the main cultural complex in Western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It coincides with the North Alpine complex, extending over modern-day central and southern Germany, northern Italy, and Switzerland. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the Hallstatt C period, which lasted from around 700 to 600 BCE, §REF§ (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In <i>Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ</a>. §REF§ Hallstatt polities became increasingly integrated into the Mediterranean economy. Although the settlement pattern was still rather decentralized, §REF§ (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In <i>Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ</a>. §REF§ this period saw the proliferation of fortified sites. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 15) Brun, Patrice. 1995. \"From chiefdom to state organization in Celtic Europe.\" In <i>Celtic chiefdom, Celtic state. New Directions in Archaeology</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 13-25. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ These elevated settlements, covering between one and ten hectares, sprang up at strategic locations such as the confluence of rivers. They were often enclosed by earthworks and walls and associated with burial mounds and tumuli. §REF§ (Arnold and Gibson 1995, 7) Arnold, Bettina, and D. Blair Gibson. 1995. “Introduction: Beyond the Mists: Forging an Ethnological Approach to Celtic Studies.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and Gibson, 1-7. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/583XXU9Z\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/583XXU9Z</a>. §REF§ <br>Another important development of the Hallstatt C period was an increasing diversity in material culture, especially in ceramic and metal objects, as seen in the elaborate bronze hoards dating to this period. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 15) Brun, Patrice. 1995. \"From chiefdom to state organization in Celtic Europe.\" In <i>Celtic chiefdom, Celtic state. New Directions in Archaeology</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 13-25. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ The variability of artefact types may indicate the fragmentation of cultural zones and the creation of myriad princely territories with an average radius of c. 30 kilometres. §REF§ (Brun 2007, 381) Brun, Patrice. 2007. “Une Période de Transition Majeure En Europe: De La Fin Du IVe Au Début Du IIe s. Av. J.-C.(La Tène B2 et C).” In <i>La Gaule Dans Son Contexte Européen Aux IV e et III e Siècle Avant Notre Ère</i>, edited by Christine Mennessier-Jouannet, Anne-Marie Adam, and Pierre-Yves Milcent, 377-84. Lattes: Edition de l’Association pour le Développement de l’Archéologie en Languedoc-Roussillon. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ</a>. §REF§ It is possible that a four-tiered administrative hierarchy developed during the Hallstatt C period. §REF§ (Arnold and Gibson 1995, 6-7) Arnold, Bettina, and D. Blair Gibson. 1995. “Introduction: Beyond the Mists: Forging an Ethnological Approach to Celtic Studies.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and Gibson, 1-7. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/583XXU9Z\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/583XXU9Z</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 79, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "non_phonetic_writing", "non_phonetic_writing": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 86, "name": "InDecIA", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300, "long_name": "Deccan - Iron Age", "new_name": "in_deccan_ia", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The South Indian Iron Age lasted, roughly, from 1200 to 300 BCE. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 59) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. <i>Journal of Social Archaeology</i> 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ The vast majority of Iron Age megalithic structures and associated sites have been found in the modern-day Indian states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. §REF§ (Brubaker 2001-2002, 253) Robert Brubaker. 2001-2002. 'Aspects of Mortuary Variability in the South Indian Iron Age'. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute</i> 60-61: 253-302. §REF§ As in the preceding Neolithic period, South Indians sustained themselves through bovine and caprine pastoralism as well as the cultivation of millet and pulses - and, increasingly, wheat, barley, and rice. Settlement designs became more complex and labour-intensive, and new social arrangements and mortuary practices emerged. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 65) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. <i>Journal of Social Archaeology</i> 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Differences in the scale, design and materials of mortuary megalithic structures and associated grave goods point to the growing hierarchization of South Indian societies at this time. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 65) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. <i>Journal of Social Archaeology</i> 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ However, there was some variation in terms of the sociopolitical organization of individual communities: for example, it is likely that some chiefs with limited decision-making powers ruled over single settlements, and that more powerful leaders based in large centres exerted some control over surrounding settlements, and that some polities were made up of several settlements ruled by a hierarchy of leaders who answered to a single paramount chief. The first type of polity probably prevailed at the beginning of the Iron Age, while the second and third type likely became more common towards its end. §REF§ (Brubaker 2001-2002, 287-91) Robert Brubaker. 2001-2002. 'Aspects of Mortuary Variability in the South Indian Iron Age'. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute</i> 60-61: 253-302. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 59, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "non_phonetic_writing", "non_phonetic_writing": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 449, "name": "FrHallA", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -900, "long_name": "Hallstatt A-B1", "new_name": "fr_hallstatt_a_b1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Hallstatt culture, named after an archaeological site in Austria and traditionally divided into four phases, was the main cultural complex in Western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It coincides with the North Alpine complex, extending over modern-day central and southern Germany, northern Italy, and Switzerland. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Across Europe, thousands of small-scale polities coexisted in the Hallstatt A period (c. 1100-1000 BCE); §REF§ (CNRS-ENS 2017) CNRS-ENS. 2017. “Atlas de L’âge Du Fer.” Accessed July 7. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/patlas\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/patlas</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HUKZMF9J\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HUKZMF9J</a>. §REF§ the average independent political unit controlled a zone with a radius of 20 kilometres. §REF§ (Brun 2007, 381) Brun, Patrice. 2007. “Une Période de Transition Majeure En Europe: De La Fin Du IVe Au Début Du IIe s. Av. J.-C.(La Tène B2 et C).” In <i>La Gaule Dans Son Contexte Européen Aux IV e et III e Siècle Avant Notre Ère</i>, edited by Christine Mennessier-Jouannet, Anne-Marie Adam, and Pierre-Yves Milcent, 377-84. Lattes: Edition de l’Association pour le Développement de l’Archéologie en Languedoc-Roussillon. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ</a>. §REF§ Most settlements identified archaeologically consisted of dispersed farms gravitating around a significant monument, a village or a fortification. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 15) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ <br>At this time, elites had control over long-distance exchange networks, which encouraged the production of bronze objects such as helmets. §REF§ (Allen 2007, 119) Allen, Stephen. 2007. <i>Lords of Battle: The World of the Celtic Warrior.</i> Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F9D9PI8A\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F9D9PI8A</a>. §REF§ These elites also distinguished themselves in death, as they were buried in elaborate complexes of tumuli, which could include protective walls, stone markers and even four-wheeled wagons. §REF§ Pare, Christopher FE. 1992. <i>Wagons and Wagon-Graves of the Early Iron Age in Central Europe.</i> Vol. 35. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XPKX7SNP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XPKX7SNP</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 88, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "non_phonetic_writing", "non_phonetic_writing": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 384, "name": "InMahaJ", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -324, "long_name": "Mahajanapada era", "new_name": "in_mahajanapada", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Mahajanapada era ran from 450-605 CE.<br>Information cannot be found in the sources consulted regarding the polity's population, however the largest settlement is estimated to have had a population of between 12,000-48,000 people (based off the number of inhabitants of Rajagriha, the old Magadhan capital.) §REF§ (Kaul 2015b: 525) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/94XKJ54Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/94XKJ54Q</a>. §REF§ <br>Excavations show there may been four types of settlements during this period, ranging from less than six hectares, up to fifty hectares, and other very small sites represented by simple ceramic findings, which may have been agricultural areas or farmsteads. §REF§ (Coningham and Young 2015: 380: 381) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DIGG6KVA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DIGG6KVA</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 14, "name": "Middle Ganga", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "82.700000000000", "latitude": "25.750000000000", "capital_city": "Jaunpur", "nga_code": "UTPR", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 68, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " There is evidence for a script, but it is not known whether it was phonetic or non-phonetic. §REF§(Kruta 2004, 30)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "non_phonetic_writing", "non_phonetic_writing": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 455, "name": "FrTeneC", "start_year": -175, "end_year": -27, "long_name": "La Tene C2-D", "new_name": "fr_la_tene_c2_d", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "La Tene (C2-D) was an Iron Age culture in Europe named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland that ran from approximately 175-27 BCE. §REF§ (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218) §REF§ <br>The territory centered on ancient Gaul and at its height spanned areas in modern day France, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Southern Germany, Czechia, parts of Northern Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, and adjacent parts of the Netherlands, Slovakia, Croatia, western Romania, and western Ukraine.<br>Settlements during this period included fortified urban settlements, larger towns, villages and farmsteads spread throughout their territories. §REF§ (Wells 1999, 45-47) §REF§ During this period tribes became urbanised and more centralized but although they formed alliances with other tribes, they did not join together within a unified centralized polity. §REF§ (Kruta 2004, 105) §REF§ Each tribe had their own fortified urban settlements and there was no capital city.<br>Production of goods at many of the larger sites included glass jewellery, leather-working, bronze-casting and coin minting. §REF§ (Wells 1999, 49-54 §REF§ <br>The population is estimated at around 70,000-80,000, and much of the information we have about the population (and other aspects of La Tene life during this period) comes from the time of Caesar’s invasion of Gaul. §REF§ (Wells 1984:171) §REF§ §REF§ (Patterson 1995, 136) §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-04-25T10:44:14.782463Z", "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 23, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 52, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "non_phonetic_writing", "non_phonetic_writing": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 447, "name": "FrBeakr", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2000, "long_name": "Beaker Culture", "new_name": "fr_beaker_eba", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "In the late 3rd millennium BCE, new forms of material culture spread across the former megalithic zone of Neolithic Europe. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 55) McIntosh, J. 2006. <i>Handbook to Life in Prehistoric Europe.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B5R92FJH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B5R92FJH</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 250) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. \"The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC.\" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) <i>The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe</i>: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 252) Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Janusz Kruk. 2002. “Late Neolithic Crises, Collapse, New Ideologies, and Economies, 3500/3000-2200/2000 BC.” In European Prehistory: A Survey, edited by Sarunas Milisauskas, 247-69. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ</a>. §REF§ The Beaker, or Bell-Beaker, §REF§ (Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 248) Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Janusz Kruk. 2002. “Late Neolithic Crises, Collapse, New Ideologies, and Economies, 3500/3000-2200/2000 BC.” In European Prehistory: A Survey, edited by Sarunas Milisauskas, 247-69. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ</a>. §REF§ phenomenon is named after a characteristic drinking vessel, which had an inverted bell shape and was decorated with incisions. §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 250-251) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. \"The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC.\" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) <i>The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe</i>: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM</a>. §REF§ Other features of this cultural 'package' include individual burials in round mounds, sets of weapons and metals, and other precious items. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ <br>The phenomenon started in what is now the Netherlands and expanded into Britain, Brittany, southern Spain and then into most of continental France, Belgium, Switzerland and Western Europe in the form of small pockets of activity. §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 246) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. \"The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC.\" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) <i>The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe</i>: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 214) Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Janusz Kruk. 2002. “Late Neolithic Crises, Collapse, New Ideologies, and Economies, 3500/3000-2200/2000 BC.” In European Prehistory: A Survey, edited by Sarunas Milisauskas, 247-69. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Beaker society was organized into myriad stratified polities of varying sizes. Some were composed of small, dispersed communities with 10 to 20 domestic units, §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 25) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ but larger groups could gather into fortified settlements: Los Millares in Spain was home to 1000-1500 people. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ The Beaker culture is also associated with demographic growth in Europe, as the small-scale polities moved into previously marginal lands. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ <br>The spread of this material culture has been interpreted as evidence for a wide set of circulation networks, fuelled by elite demand for prestige goods. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ The items may have been exchanged on the occasion of social rituals consolidating the power of emerging leaders. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ In this interpretation, the archaeologically visible spread of Beaker culture would not be tied to immigration but to the emergence of mobile ways of life, §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 250-251) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. \"The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC.\" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) <i>The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe</i>: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM</a>. §REF§ with independent leaders affirming their belonging to a wider cultural sphere through the consumption and display of valuable items. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ <br>Beaker people built on the legacy of their early Neolithic predecessors, reusing and modifying ceremonial structures such as Stonehenge. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 28) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ However they distinguished themselves through their burial customs, preferring single burials in grave pits to passage and gallery graves. In certain areas, such as the Iberian Peninsula or southern France, they occasionally reused ancient megalithic structures. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 28-29) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-04-15T15:39:50.374042Z", "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 62, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "non_phonetic_writing", "non_phonetic_writing": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 452, "name": "FrHallD", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -475, "long_name": "Hallstatt D", "new_name": "fr_hallstatt_d", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Hallstatt culture, named after an archaeological site in Austria and traditionally divided into four phases, was the main cultural complex in Western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It coincides with the North Alpine complex, extending over modern-day central and southern Germany, northern Italy, and Switzerland. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Hallstatt D period (c. 600-475 BCE) §REF§ (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In <i>Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ</a>. §REF§ saw the intensification of processes that had been occurring throughout the Hallstatt era. Some polities disintegrated while others gained power. Thus, the number of hillforts decreased but they grew in size; §REF§ (Allen 2007, 26-27) Allen, Stephen. 2007. <i>Lords of Battle: The World of the Celtic Warrior.</i> Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F9D9PI8A\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F9D9PI8A</a>. §REF§ Mont Lassois is a prime example. §REF§ (Collis 1984, 16) Collis, John. 1984. <i>The European Iron Age.</i> London; New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS</a>. §REF§ Chiefs controlled the prestige economy at the local level, trading with their Mediterranean counterparts. Extreme social differentiation can be observed in burials; §REF§ (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In <i>Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ</a>. §REF§ the lavish Vix Burial, a cairn 42 metres wide and 6 metres high associated with the site of Mont Lassois, §REF§ (Collis 1984, 16, 95) Collis, John. 1984. <i>The European Iron Age.</i> London; New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS</a>. §REF§ includes gold and bronze objects as well as prestigious imports.<br>This period was also marked by the rise of urban centres specializing in administrative and mercantile activities, including colonies and entrepôts established for the purpose of long-distance trade. §REF§ (Collis 1984, 22) Collis, John. 1984. <i>The European Iron Age.</i> London; New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS</a> §REF§ Population estimates are more easily accessible for the Hallstatt D period. The Heuneburg, a hillfort reaching c. 100 hectares in the mid-6th century BCE, may have been home to about 5000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Fernández Götz and Krausse 2012, 31) Fernández-Götz, Manuel, and Dirk Krausse. 2012. “Heuneburg. First City North of the Alps.” <i>Current World Archaeology</i>, no. 55: 28-34. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/PMS9IF2F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/PMS9IF2F</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 51, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " No information found in sources so far.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "non_phonetic_writing", "non_phonetic_writing": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 448, "name": "FrAtlBA", "start_year": -2200, "end_year": -1000, "long_name": "Atlantic Complex", "new_name": "fr_atlantic_complex", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Early Bronze Age on the Atlantic seaboard of Western Europe lasted from around 1800 to 1300 BCE. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 412) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) <i>Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe</i>, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ Several technological and social changes marked this period, taking place in an area expanding over what is now the south of England, west and central France, and Flanders, §REF§ (Mordant 2013, 573) Mordant, Claude. 2013. The Bronze Age in France. In Fokkens, H. and A. Harding (eds) The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age, pp. 571-593. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QX9UG55P\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QX9UG55P</a>. §REF§ but also Portugal and Spain. §REF§ (Otte 2008, 276) Otte, Marcel. 2008. La protohistoire, 2è édition. Bruxelles: de Boeck. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2PQEDZ2I\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2PQEDZ2I</a>. §REF§ Metals were used to craft new types of weapons and ornaments, beginning with copper and then bronze axes, used for working wood and individual defence, §REF§ (Ghesquière in Macigny et al. 2005, 23) Cyril Marcigny, Cécile Colonna, Emmanuel Ghesquière, Guy Verron (eds) 2005. La Normandie à l'aube de l'Histoire. Les découvertes archéologiques de l’âge du Bronze 2300-800 av. J.C. Somogy, Paris. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ZA57Q27\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ZA57Q27</a> §REF§ and culminating in more complex forms of weaponry like swords, daggers and halberds. §REF§ (Ghesquière in Macigny et al 2005, 23) Marcigny, Cyril, Cécile Colonna, Emmanuel Ghesquière, and Guy Verron. 2005. La Normandie à L’aube de L'histoire : Les Découvertes Archéologiques de L'âge Du Bronze 2300-800 Av. J.-C. Paris: Somogy éd. d’art. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ZA57Q27\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ZA57Q27</a>. §REF§ However, most of the artefacts characterizing this period were items of personal jewellery such as torcs, anklets, and pins. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 413) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) <i>Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe</i>, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ The trade of these materials formed a vast European network of exchange. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 413) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) <i>Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe</i>, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Over the course of the Early Bronze Age, several trends originating in the Beaker period were reinforced: political integration was one of them. Two tiers of social hierarchy can be inferred from burial patterns. While most of these differences were tied to individual achievements over one's lifetime, social status could also be inherited. Indeed, children have been found in elite burials containing prestigious items, contrasting with the much simpler tombs of commoners. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 413) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) <i>Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe</i>, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ <br>The construction of fortified settlements intensified, following a two-tiered settlement hierarchy. Simple hamlets corresponded to one or more extended families. Elsewhere, small fortified towns were built on raised areas of land and surrounded by walls and ditches. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 412-413) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) <i>Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe</i>, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }