Polity Scale Of Supracultural Interaction List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Scales of Supracultural Interaction.
GET /api/general/polity-scale-of-supracultural-interactions/?page=3
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S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 24 February 2017). §REF§ In 1168-69 CE, the Zangid prince Nur al-Din placed Saladin's uncle, Shirkuh, in command of a military expedition to Egypt (at that time under Fatimid rule) to take control of the country and expel the invading Frankish Crusaders. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 218) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 290) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Saladin accompanied him and was appointed vizier of Egypt by the Fatimid caliph when Shirkuh died in 1169. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 24 February 2017). §REF§ <br>Saladin, however, did not have the local dynasty's interests at heart. He immediately set about undermining its power and the Ismaili (Shi'a) Islam professed by its elite in favour of a new Sunni order, in theory loyal to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 210-11) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ We begin our Ayyubid Sultanate polity in 1171, when the last Fatimid caliph, Al-Adid, died and Saladin progressed from vizier to sultan in Egypt. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 210) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ He nevertheless suppressed his ambitions until his old Zangid overlord Nur al-Din died in 1174, after which he launched a successful campaign of military expansion into the Levant and Upper Mesopotamia, as well as a brief 'holy war' on the Crusader states along the Levantine coast. §REF§ (Lyons and Jackson 1982, 201) Malcolm Cameron Lyons and D. E. P. Jackson. 1982. <i>Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ <br>A succession crisis followed Saladin's death in 1193, and a devastating famine in 1200 reduced parts of the population to cannibalism. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 226) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, Saladin's brother, al-'Adil, declared himself sultan in 1200 and managed to impose some degree of internal stability on the empire, §REF§ (Humphreys 1977, 125-26) R. Stephen Humphreys. 1977. <i>From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193‒1260</i>. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. §REF§ which was split into the kingdoms of Egypt, Damascus, Aleppo and Mosul. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The reign of al-'Adil's son, al-Kamil, from 1218 to 1238 CE, was also a relatively stable and prosperous period in Egypt, §REF§ (Werthmuller 2010, 48) Kurt J. Werthmuller. 2010. <i>Coptic Identity and Ayyubid Politics in Egypt, 1218‒1250</i>. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ although he faced opposition from Ayyubid princes in Syria and Palestine. §REF§ (Hamblin 2005, 753) William J. Hamblin. 2005. 'Egypt: Ayyubid Dynasty, 1169-1250', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History, volume 1: A-G</i>, edited by Kevin Shillington, 752-54. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn. §REF§ <br>As-Salih Ayyub, the sultan who came to power in 1240 CE, §REF§ (Keenan 1999, 287) James G. Keenan. 1999. 'Fayyum Agriculture at the End of the Ayyubid Era: Nabulsi's <i>Survey'.</i> <i>Proceedings of the British Academy</i> 96: 287-99. §REF§ attempted to enhance his power at the expense of other Ayyubid princely lines by purchasing many more Turkish Mamluks (high-ranking slave soldiers) than his predecessors. §REF§ (Levanoni 1990, 124) Amalia Levanoni. 1990. 'The Mamluks' Ascent to Power in Egypt'. <i>Studia Islamica</i> 72: 121-44. §REF§ They served him as a military and governmental elite. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ §REF§ (Levanoni 1990, 124) Amalia Levanoni. 1990. 'The Mamluks' Ascent to Power in Egypt'. <i>Studia Islamica</i> 72: 121-44. §REF§ The Mamluks' increasingly powerful position proved to be the downfall of the Ayyubid Sultanate when, after Salih-Ayyub's death in 1249, one faction (the Bahriyya Mamluks) assassinated his son Turanshah and seized the throne. §REF§ (Levanoni 1990, 137) Amalia Levanoni. 1990. 'The Mamluks' Ascent to Power in Egypt'. <i>Studia Islamica</i> 72: 121-44. §REF§ The Ayyubid dynasty hung onto power in Syria until 1260, when the Mamluks defeated the invading Mongols at 'Ayn Jalut and gained popular recognition of their right to rule as 'saviours of Islam'. §REF§ (Northrup 1998, 248) Linda S. Northrup. 1998. 'The Baḥrī Mamlūk Sultanate, 1250‒1390', in <i>The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1: Islamic Egypt, 640‒1517</i>, edited by Carl F. Petry, 242-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, we end our Ayyubid period with the assassination of Turanshah, the last Ayyubid sultan of Egypt.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Ayyubids made use of the pre-existing Fatimid bureaucratic system to administer Egypt, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 246) I. M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and ruled via a Turkish and Kurdish 'military aristocracy', including some slave (Mamluk) regiments. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lev 2010, 210, 213) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ This was funded by the distribution of <i>iqta's</i> ‒ rights to tax revenue from estates of land ‒ in exchange for military and administrative services. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291, 877) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Saladin and his successors also promoted Sunni Islam in the empire by sponsoring law schools (<i>madrasas</i>) to serve as centres for the teaching of Sunni law. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291, 877) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ayyubid Sultanate was never particularly centralized: it has been described as a 'family confederation', meaning that male members of the ruling dynasty were given principalities across the realm and allowed to govern them with substantial political autonomy. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ Kinship ties determined relationships between different princes, so that, for example, two brothers ruling different regions would have less authority over each other than a father would over his son. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ However, the sultan of Egypt was usually successful in asserting his suzerainty over the other kingdoms. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291, 877) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to find substantiated estimates for the population of the entire Ayyubid Sultanate, but there were about 2.4 million people in Egypt under Saladin. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 149) M. W. Dols. 1977. <i>The Black Death in the Middle East</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 28, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "km squared.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 250000, "scale_to": 500000, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "EgIntOc", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342, "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "new_name": "eg_inter_occupation", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Inter-Occupation Dynasties (Twenty-eighth, Twenty-ninth and Thirtieth Dynasties, 404‒343/2 BCE) §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 377) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Late Period (664-332 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 364-87. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ refers to the last period during which Egypt was governed by indigenous rulers, at a time when Egypt's external relationships with Greeks and Persians overshadowed attempts to maintain internal political stability. Forming part of the the 'Late Period' of Egyptian history, it spanned only about six decades in between phases of Persian domination. §REF§ (Lichtheim [1980] 2006, ix-x) Miriam Lichtheim. [1980] 2006. <i>Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume III: The Late Period</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>The Twenty-eighth Dynasty was established after a number of revolts against Persian rule in 404 BCE, and Amyrtaeus II, who ruled from Memphis, may have adopted the regnal name of Psamtik (after the first Saite king) to lend his rule legitimacy. §REF§ (Perdu 2010, 152-53) Olivier Perdu. 2010. 'Saites and Persians (664‒332)', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Although Amyrtaeus succeeded in extending his control as far south as Aswan in 400 BCE, where his rule was accepted by the Jewish community at Elephantine, §REF§ (Grimal 1994, 371) N. Grimal. 1994. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ his reign was challenged and overthrown by one of his generals. An Aramaic papyrus at the Brooklyn museum describes a violent coup that unseated Amyrtaeus; according to the document, Nepherites I captured Amyrtaeus and executed him at Memphis. §REF§ (Grimal 1994, 372) N. Grimal. 1994. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ <br>Nepherites I is considered the founder of a new dynasty (the Twenty-ninth). His new capital was probably at Mendes, where he carried out building projects, as revealed by excavations in the 1980s by the Brooklyn Museum and the University of New York. §REF§ (Grimal 1994, 372) N. Grimal. 1994. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ Nectanebo I, founder of the Thirtieth and final native Egyptian pharaonic Dynasty, seems to have overthrown the last ruler of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty with the assistance of a Greek general called Chabrias, whose mercenaries are known to have subsequently helped prevent a Persian invasion of Egypt. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The most powerful elements in Egyptian society in this period were members of the the warrior class and priesthood. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 377) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Late Period (664-332 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 364-87. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The men who established the Twenty-ninth and Thirtieth Dynasties ‒ Nepherites I and Nectanebo I respectively ‒ were both generals, while Amyrtaeus II was most likely the grandson of another Amyrtaeus from Sais, who had rebelled against the Achaemenid occupation. §REF§ (Perdu 2010, 152) Olivier Perdu. 2010. 'Saites and Persians (664‒332)', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ One of the first priorities of Nectanebo II when he came to power was to control the Egyptian army; to achieve this end he promoted his oldest son to the position of 'First Generalissimo of His Majesty'. §REF§ (Perdu 2010, 156) Olivier Perdu. 2010. 'Saites and Persians (664‒332)', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The 340s BCE were a time of insurrection, when Egyptians were fomenting rebellions against Persian authority across the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean. §REF§ (Ruzicka 2012) Stephen Ruzicka. 2012. <i>Trouble in the West: Egypt and the Persian Empire, 525-332 BCE</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>There are few sources to tell us of the workings of the Egyptian administration of this time, but historians agree that when the Persian Achaemenids conquered territories - including Egypt - they were generally happy to leave indigenous governance structures intact and did not seek to make wholesale changes to them. Egypt was made a satrapy, and the main task of the satrap in Memphis was to keep up the regular shipment of tribute to Persia. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 16-17) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It therefore seems likely that the Inter-Occupation Dynasties retained the administrative structures of the preceding Saite Period: a centralized court government with a warrior pharaoh and a vizier who ran his civil administration. This was the last period in which regional rulers called nomarchs formed part of the provincial administration.<br>The Late Period of Egypt saw an elaboration of debt and credit structures, to the extent that merchants could issue loans to individuals. §REF§ (Allam 1990, 2) S. Allam. 1990. 'Women as Holders of Rights in Ancient Egypt (During the Late Period)'. <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i> 33 (1): 1-34. §REF§ Though Persian coins were used under the Achaemenids, an innovation of the post-Achaemenid period of rule was the state minting of silver coins, §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 25) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ perhaps from the reign of Teos onwards. Priests were required to pay a tax in silver in order to secure donations to their temples; temples were forced to drastically reduce their expenses and use the savings to make loans to the king, who used it to mint coins to pay his armies. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 25) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt.</i> New York: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Pharaoh Teos evidently had enough resources to launch an attack on the Persians in the late 360s BCE. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 24) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Egypt at this time was a diverse, cosmopolitan state. Foreign mercenary forces recruited to defend the Egyptian homeland, a practice popular since the Third Intermediate Period, brought great ethnic and cultural diversity. The presence of garrisoned Greeks, Carians, Phoenicians, Cypriots, Aramaeans and Jews had been an important influence on Egypt since the Saite Dynasty and these groups had retained the languages and culture of their home communities. §REF§ (Kaplan 2003) Philip Kaplan. 2003. 'Cross-Cultural Contacts among Mercenary Communities in Saite and Persian Egypt'. <i>Mediterranean Historical Review</i> 18 (1): 1-31. §REF§ <br>A significant innovation of the period was the widespread adoption of the <i>qanat</i> water supply technology, brought in by the occupying Persians in the 5th century BCE. §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2011, 307) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt.</i> Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Qanats were sloping subterranean tunnels that conducted groundwater over long distances, creating a reliable supply of water for drinking, bathing and irrigation. §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2011, 307) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt.</i> Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In about 400 BCE, the Egyptian population is likely to have risen to slightly over three million. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 227) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History.</i> London: Allen Lane. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 30, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "km squared.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 11000000, "scale_to": 11000000, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "EgMamBu", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517, "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "new_name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "During the Burji period of the Mamluk Sultanate, Egypt was ruled by an elite 'slave' military caste of Circassian origin. These rulers had replaced the earlier Bahri Dynasty, of Turkish origin, in 1382 CE during the preceding 'crisis phase'. With the assassination of Sultan Faraj in 1412 CE, Mamluk Egypt entered a 'relative recovery' with 'periods of brilliance', although problems such as demographic stagnation did not disappear. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The most renowned of the rulers were the Sultans Barsbay and Qaytbay, but they did little to prevent the deterioration of the Mamluk institutions and the economic collapse and disorder that preceded the Ottoman takeover. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 165) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ We begin our Burji Mamluk period in 1412 and end it with the fall of the dynasty to Ottoman forces in 1517. §REF§ (Winter 1992, xiii) Michael Winter. 1992. <i>Egyptian Society under Ottoman Rule, 1517‒1798</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Since the children of mamluks could by law never become mamluks, §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 16) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ the Mamluk Sultanate was in every generation ruled by a foreign 'slave-elite' that had to be constantly replaced by new 'slave' recruits imported, educated, promoted, and manumitted specifically for the role. Manumission was essential because under Islamic law no slave could be sovereign. The sultan performed a ritual manumission at his inaugural ceremony but the legal manumission would usually have occurred when he was about 18 years old, following the mamluk training. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In the Bahri period the Mamluks were of Turkish origin (like those recruited by the last Ayyubid sultan), but later sultans recruited mostly Circassians from the Caucasus. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 112) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Mamluk recruits were employed in the central government, the military and as governors in the provinces. While promotion to the highest echelons of the government and military was 'granted according to precise rules', succession to the highest position - the Sultanate itself - was often a chaotic contest in which 'seniority, merit, cabal, intrigue, or violence' all jostled for prominence. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 113-14) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Nevertheless, the deck was stacked such that from 1290 to 1382 CE, the sultanate was inherited by 17 different descendants of Sultan Qalawun. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 114) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The Mamluk sultan ruled from Cairo and during his absence from the capital, Egypt was governed by his viceroy, the <i>na'ib al-saltana</i>. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 152) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The bureaucracy did not tightly control the countryside. Rather, influence was projected informally through<i> 'iqta</i> holdings (allotments of land along with the right to their tax revenue) - first used in Egypt during the preceding Ayyubid Dynasty period. These were assigned as a way to remunerate the slave soldiers of the centrally organized professional military, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 250) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ as well as more formally through the na'ib, governor of a <i>mamlaka</i> administrative district. §REF§ (Drory 2004, 169) Joseph Drory. 2004. 'Some Remarks Concerning Safed and the Organization of the Region in the Mamluk period', in <i>The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society</i>, edited by Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, 163-90. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The Mamluk elite controlled the appointment of 'judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders, and other Muslim officials. They paid the salaries of religious personnel, endowed their schools, and thus brought the religious establishment into a state bureaucracy'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 249) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In Cairo, Islamic law was kept by three traditional magistracies called <i>qadi</i> (pl. <i>qudah</i>), whose courts had a wide remit over civil law. A law-enforcement official called the chief of the sergeant of the watch oversaw <i>wulah</i> (sg. <i>wali</i>) policemen who kept watch at night and also fought fires. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 153) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>Although struck by plague and famines during the crisis period, Cairo was never short of people: a lower-bound estimate of its resident population places it at about 150,000 people. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 152) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The population of the sultanate perhaps recovered slightly in this period, reaching about 6 million in 1500 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones, 1978, 138-47, 227) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ <br><i>Infrastructure and Public Services</i><br>Like previous Mamluk rulers, the Burji Sultans expended considerable resources on public works projects - both directly and indirectly via patronage. They built and restored schools, hostels, bathhouses and mosques, and, under Sultan Qayt Bey (reigned 1468‒1496) in particular, arts and architecture flourished. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 21) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The El Muayyad Mosque (1420 CE), the Mosque of Barsbay (1425 CE), §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 173-74) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and the mausoleum complex of Sultan Qaitbay (1468‒1496 CE) all date from this period. Cairo also had a water supply system, paid for by its users, that conducted water from the Nile to the city's streets and houses. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 154) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <i>Waqf</i> (religious foundations) were set up through initial endowments in property with the intention that they would become self-funding. Many public baths, caravanserais and shops were built by charitable and religious foundations, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 174) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ often in combination with initial patronage from the sultan or other Mamluk aristocrats. Sultan Qaytbay built many <i>urbu</i> (multi-storey apartments) and used the revenues to fund a charitable foundation for the inhabitants of Medina. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 174) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ However, despite the continued financing of elaborate construction projects, increasingly the government could not afford the upkeep of essential infrastructure such as canals, dams and irrigation systems. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>These public works were matched by lavish private buildings for the sultan and his retainers. Sultan Ghuri notably built an ornate palace and garden, with soil and trees imported from Syria and an aqueduct to water it. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 180) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Mamluks treated themselves and foreign dignitaries to entertainment in hippodromes and to polo tournaments on the <i>maydan</i> (public square). §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 112) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In the royal pavilion (<i>maqad</i>), 'incense burned and wine flowed, while musicians played and poets recited to a court society clad in silk and sprinkled with rosewater, the beards of its male luminaries perfumed with the musk of civet'. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 21, 24) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 31, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "km squared.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 11000000, "scale_to": 11000000, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "EgMamCP", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412, "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "new_name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Between 1348 and 1412 CE, a 'great crisis' struck Mamluk Egypt and Syria under the Bahri Dynasty sultan, precipitating the rise of the Burji (Circassian) Dynasty from 1382 CE. Instead of the traditional chronological division of the Mamluk Sultanate into two dynasties, we have therefore included a crisis period encapsulating the end of the Bahri and beginning of the Burji periods. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Indeed, the crisis period persisted until the assassination of Sultan Faraj in Damascus in 1412 CE. In addition to the plague of 1348 CE, which for many Egyptians brought a period of spectacular prosperity to an end, other natural disasters in this period included an abnormally high Nile flood in 1354, famine in 1375, the return of the plague between 1379 and 1381, a low Nile flood and grain shortage in 1394 and again in 1403 CE, followed by yet another famine between 1403 and 1404 CE. In the midst of these environmental crises, and perhaps sparked by them, the region also experienced civil war in 1389 CE, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17, 138-46) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ effectively ending the period of Turkish rule in Egypt.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Since the children of mamluks could by law never become mamluks, §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 16) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ the Mamluk Sultanate was in every generation ruled by a foreign 'slave-elite' that had to be constantly replaced by new 'slave' recruits imported, educated, promoted, and manumitted specifically for the role. Manumission was essential because under Islamic law no slave could be sovereign. The sultan performed a ritual manumission at his inaugural ceremony but the legal manumission would usually have occurred when he was about 18 years old, following the mamluk training. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In the Bahri period the Mamluks were of Turkish origin (like those recruited by the last Ayyubid sultan), but later sultans recruited mostly Circassians from the Caucasus. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 112) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Mamluk recruits were employed in the central government, the military and as governors in the provinces. While promotion to the highest echelons of the government and military was 'granted according to precise rules', succession to the highest position - the Sultanate itself - was often a chaotic contest in which 'seniority, merit, cabal, intrigue, or violence' all jostled for prominence. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 113-14) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Nevertheless, the deck was stacked such that from 1290 to 1382 CE, the sultanate was inherited by 17 different descendants of Sultan Qalawun. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 114) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The Mamluk sultan ruled from Cairo and during his absence from the capital, Egypt was governed by his viceroy, the <i>na'ib al-saltana</i>. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 152) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The bureaucracy did not tightly control the countryside. Rather, influence was projected informally through<i> 'iqta</i> holdings (allotments of land along with the right to their tax revenue) - first used in Egypt during the preceding Ayyubid Dynasty period. These were assigned as a way to remunerate the slave soldiers of the centrally organized professional military, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 250) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ as well as more formally through the na'ib, governor of a <i>mamlaka</i> administrative district. §REF§ (Drory 2004, 169) Joseph Drory. 2004. 'Some Remarks Concerning Safed and the Organization of the Region in the Mamluk period', in <i>The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society</i>, edited by Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, 163-90. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The Mamluk elite controlled the appointment of 'judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders, and other Muslim officials. They paid the salaries of religious personnel, endowed their schools, and thus brought the religious establishment into a state bureaucracy'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 249) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In Cairo, Islamic law was kept by three traditional magistracies called <i>qadi</i> (pl. <i>qudah</i>), whose courts had a wide remit over civil law. A law-enforcement official called the chief of the sergeant of the watch oversaw <i>wulah</i> (sg. <i>wali</i>) policemen who kept watch at night and also fought fires. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 153) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Revenue and Public Services</i><br>The Bahri Dynasty was highly effective at drawing revenue. In the 14th century CE, the annual revenue was 9.5 million dinars, which was 'higher than at almost any other time since the Arab conquest'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ This paid for the Al-Barid postal system initiated by Baybars (1260‒1277 CE), which was extremely expensive to set up. Horses were used for first time on routes such as Cairo to Qus in Upper Egypt; and Cairo to Alexandria, Damietta and Syria. §REF§ (Silverstein 2007, 173) A. J. Silverstein. 2007. <i>Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic World</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Syrian region of the Mamluk Sultanate was run by a chief governor, who had governors below him. §REF§ (Drory 2004, 169) Joseph Drory. 2004. 'Some Remarks Concerning Safed and the Organization of the Region in the Mamluk period', in <i>The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society</i>, edited by Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, 163-90. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Imperial communications via Palestine were reportedly so efficient that 'Baybars boasted that he could play polo in Cairo and Damascus in the same week, while an even more rapid carrier-pigeon post was maintained between the two cities'. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 17) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Black Death reached Alexandria in Egypt, probably from the Crimea, in the autumn of 1347 CE before slowly spreading throughout northern Egypt in 1348 and peaking in the autumn and winter of that year. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 154-55) M. W. Dols. 1977. <i>The Black Death In The Middle East</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ As a result of the epidemic, the Egyptian population, previously between 4.2 and 8 million, 'may have declined by about one-quarter to one-third' by the mid- to late 14th century. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 218) M. W. Dols. 1977. <i>The Black Death In The Middle East</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ The total population of the sultanate fell from perhaps 6-7 million to 4.8 million during this period. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 227) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History.</i> London: Allen Lane. §REF§ <br>The troubled times did little to prevent the Mamluk ruling class from carrying out extravagant construction projects, for which they mostly used corvée labour. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Between 1341 and 1412 CE, 49 mosques were built in the southern zone of Cairo. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 145) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ One of them was the 'gigantic' Sultan Hasan Mosque (built 1356‒1361 CE), which cost an astonishing 20 million dirhams and has been called 'one of the most remarkable monuments of the Islamic world'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 141) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Sultan Sha'ban Mosque, built in 1375 but destroyed in 1411, may have been comparable. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 144) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The Mamluk-period mosques added to a city already studded with public baths, §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 65) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ caravanserais, §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 65) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ libraries, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 248) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ madrasas §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and hospitals. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 52) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 32, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "km squared.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 3500000, "scale_to": 4000000, "polity": { "id": 109, "name": "EgPtol1", "start_year": -305, "end_year": -217, "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I", "new_name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Ptolemaic Kingdom (or Empire) was one of the successor states to the Macedonian Empire created by the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BCE. When Alexander died in Babylon in 323, Ptolemy, as one of his most favoured generals and bodyguards, was appointed satrap (governor) of Egypt, Libya and parts of Arabia. §REF§ (Hӧlbl 2001, 12, 14) Günther Hӧlbl. 2001. <i>A History of the Ptolemaic Empire</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The next few decades after 323 were characterized by incessant warfare between those who wished to maintain the unity of the Macedonian Empire, nominally still intact, §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ and those who aspired to rule their own kingdoms independently. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Ptolemy was firmly on the separatist side, and in 305 BCE he successfully declared himself king of Egypt. In doing so, he became Ptolemy I Soter ('the saviour') §REF§ (Thompson 2005, 113) Dorothy J. Thompson. 2005. 'The Ptolemies and Egypt', in <i>A Companion to the Hellenistic World</i>, edited by Andrew Erskine, 105-20. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ , founder of a powerful dynasty (sometimes known as the Lagides, after his father Lagos) §REF§ (Myśliwiec 2000, 179) Karol Myśliwiec. 2000. <i>The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E.</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ that was to rule Egypt for almost three centuries.<br>Ptolemy I and his successors had expansionist ambitions, seeking to carve out more and more territory for their new kingdom, often at the expense of the other kingdoms that had splintered from Alexander's empire, especially the Seleucid Kingdom of the Middle East. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ At its greatest extent, the Ptolemaic Empire reached as far south as Lower Nubia (southern Egypt), west to Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya), east to Cyprus, Syria, Phoenicia and Asia Minor (Turkey), and north into the Aegean. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169-71) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In the words of one researcher, Egypt became for the first time a true 'Mediterranean power' under its new Macedonian rulers. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The peak of the Ptolemaic period is generally considered to correspond to the reigns of the first three Ptolemies in the 3rd century BCE. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 11) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ We divide the kingdom into two polities: the first begins with Ptolemy I's accession in 305 and ends with the Battle of Raphia in 217. In this battle, Ptolemy IV defeated the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who had invaded Ptolemaic-controlled lands in Palestine. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 394) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The late 3rd and early 2nd centuries saw conflict within the ruling family and revolts by the Egyptian population, representing an 'age of crisis' between two periods of relative stability. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 165-66) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Our second polity runs from 217 up to the famous suicide of Cleopatra VII, the last ruler in the Ptolemaic line, and the Roman annexation of Egypt in 30 BCE. §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Newman 2015) Frances Stickney Newman. 2015. 'Cleopatra VII', in <i>Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia</i>. Ipswich, MA: Salem Press. Accessed 22 February 2017. §REF§ Overall, the Ptolemies were a successful dynasty: in concert with their expansionist policies, they managed to transform Egypt ‒ and the new city of Alexandria in particular ‒ into the cultural and economic centre of the Hellenistic world. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 173-75) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The Ptolemies were the longest-lived foreign dynasty ever to rule Egypt. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 159) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ They presided over a 'double society', portraying themselves as Graeco-Macedonian kings to the many resident Greeks and divine pharaohs to the 'native' Egyptian population. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 33, 37) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Greeks and Egyptians were subject to different judicial systems and Greeks tended to dominate the highest echelons of society. §REF§ (Manning 2003, 53, 131) J. G. Manning. 2003. <i>Land and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Structure of Land Tenure</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 409) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Alexandria, built as an ideal Greek-style Hellenistic city with its magnificent library, stadium, theatre, gymnasium and lighthouse, was always set apart from the rest of the country. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 174) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 400-01) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Over time, however, and especially from 200 BCE onwards, the boundaries between 'Greek' and 'Egyptian' became blurred. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171-73) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The chief aim of government was to draw as much revenue ‒ in money and in wheat ‒ as possible from the population, and for this reason the burden of taxation was heavy. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 78) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ The Ptolemies left many Pharaonic Egyptian institutions intact, such as the temple hierarchy with its priests and scribes. However, they used state functionaries and tax farmers to divert more and more wealth from temples, agricultural estates, especially those of granted to soldiers (known as cleruchs), and ordinary peasant farmers to the royal coffers. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 404-05) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Egypt under the Ptolemies also became more outward-looking, extending commercial and political power into the Levant, the Black Sea and the shores of the Mediterranean as far west as Sicily. §REF§ (Thompson and Buraselis 2013, 2-4) Dorothy J. Thompson and Kostas Buraselis. 'Introduction', in <i>The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power</i>, edited by Kostas Buraselis, Mary Stefanou and Dorothy J. Thompson, 1-18. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The population of Egypt during the Ptolemaic period has been estimated at around 4 million people in the 3rd century BCE, of which between 5 and 10 percent were Greeks. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2011, 135-37) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2011. 'Counting the Greeks in Egypt: Immigration in the First Century of Ptolemaic Rule', in <i>Demography in the Graeco-Roman World</i>, edited by C. Holleran and A. Pudsey, 135-54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The total population of the entire Ptolemaic Empire may have reached 7 million. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 149) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 33, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "km squared.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 3500000, "scale_to": 4000000, "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "EgPtol2", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30, "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "new_name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Ptolemaic Kingdom (or Empire) was one of the successor states to the Macedonian Empire created by the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BCE. When Alexander died in Babylon in 323, Ptolemy, as one of his most favoured generals and bodyguards, was appointed satrap (governor) of Egypt, Libya and parts of Arabia. §REF§ (Hӧlbl 2001, 12, 14) Günther Hӧlbl. 2001. <i>A History of the Ptolemaic Empire</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The next few decades after 323 were characterized by incessant warfare between those who wished to maintain the unity of the Macedonian Empire, nominally still intact, §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ and those who aspired to rule their own kingdoms independently. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Ptolemy was firmly on the separatist side, and in 305 BCE he successfully declared himself king of Egypt. In doing so, he became Ptolemy I Soter ('the saviour') §REF§ (Thompson 2005, 113) Dorothy J. Thompson. 2005. 'The Ptolemies and Egypt', in <i>A Companion to the Hellenistic World</i>, edited by Andrew Erskine, 105-20. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ , founder of a powerful dynasty (sometimes known as the Lagides, after his father Lagos) §REF§ (Myśliwiec 2000, 179) Karol Myśliwiec. 2000. <i>The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E.</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ that was to rule Egypt for almost three centuries.<br>Ptolemy I and his successors had expansionist ambitions, seeking to carve out more and more territory for their new kingdom, often at the expense of the other kingdoms that had splintered from Alexander's empire, especially the Seleucid Kingdom of the Middle East. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ At its greatest extent, the Ptolemaic Empire reached as far south as Lower Nubia (southern Egypt), west to Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya), east to Cyprus, Syria, Phoenicia and Asia Minor (Turkey), and north into the Aegean. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169-71) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In the words of one researcher, Egypt became for the first time a true 'Mediterranean power' under its new Macedonian rulers. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The peak of the Ptolemaic period is generally considered to correspond to the reigns of the first three Ptolemies in the 3rd century BCE. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 11) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ We divide the kingdom into two polities: the first begins with Ptolemy I's accession in 305 and ends with the Battle of Raphia in 217. In this battle, Ptolemy IV defeated the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who had invaded Ptolemaic-controlled lands in Palestine. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 394) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The late 3rd and early 2nd centuries saw conflict within the ruling family and revolts by the Egyptian population, representing an 'age of crisis' between two periods of relative stability. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 165-66) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Our second polity runs from 217 up to the famous suicide of Cleopatra VII, the last ruler in the Ptolemaic line, and the Roman annexation of Egypt in 30 BCE. §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Newman 2015) Frances Stickney Newman. 2015. 'Cleopatra VII', in <i>Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia</i>. Ipswich, MA: Salem Press. Accessed 22 February 2017. §REF§ Overall, the Ptolemies were a successful dynasty: in concert with their expansionist policies, they managed to transform Egypt ‒ and the new city of Alexandria in particular ‒ into the cultural and economic centre of the Hellenistic world. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 173-75) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The Ptolemies were the longest-lived foreign dynasty ever to rule Egypt. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 159) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ They presided over a 'double society', portraying themselves as Graeco-Macedonian kings to the many resident Greeks and divine pharaohs to the 'native' Egyptian population. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 33, 37) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Greeks and Egyptians were subject to different judicial systems and Greeks tended to dominate the highest echelons of society. §REF§ (Manning 2003, 53, 131) J. G. Manning. 2003. <i>Land and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Structure of Land Tenure</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 409) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Alexandria, built as an ideal Greek-style Hellenistic city with its magnificent library, stadium, theatre, gymnasium and lighthouse, was always set apart from the rest of the country. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 174) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 400-01) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Over time, however, and especially from 200 BCE onwards, the boundaries between 'Greek' and 'Egyptian' became blurred. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171-73) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The chief aim of government was to draw as much revenue ‒ in money and in wheat ‒ as possible from the population, and for this reason the burden of taxation was heavy. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 78) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ The Ptolemies left many Pharaonic Egyptian institutions intact, such as the temple hierarchy with its priests and scribes. However, they used state functionaries and tax farmers to divert more and more wealth from temples, agricultural estates, especially those of granted to soldiers (known as cleruchs), and ordinary peasant farmers to the royal coffers. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 404-05) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Egypt under the Ptolemies also became more outward-looking, extending commercial and political power into the Levant, the Black Sea and the shores of the Mediterranean as far west as Sicily. §REF§ (Thompson and Buraselis 2013, 2-4) Dorothy J. Thompson and Kostas Buraselis. 'Introduction', in <i>The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power</i>, edited by Kostas Buraselis, Mary Stefanou and Dorothy J. Thompson, 1-18. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The population of Egypt during the Ptolemaic period has been estimated at around 4 million people in the 3rd century BCE, of which between 5 and 10 percent were Greeks. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2011, 135-37) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2011. 'Counting the Greeks in Egypt: Immigration in the First Century of Ptolemaic Rule', in <i>Demography in the Graeco-Roman World</i>, edited by C. Holleran and A. Pudsey, 135-54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The total population of the entire Ptolemaic Empire may have reached 7 million. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 149) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-04-18T13:32:02.471239Z", "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 27, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 34, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "km squared.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 250000, "scale_to": 500000, "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "EgSaite", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525, "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "new_name": "eg_saite", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "If scholars are in disagreement over whether Egypt of the Kushite Empire experienced a period of centralized rule, this undoubtedly did occur during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (664-525 BCE), §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 364) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Late Period (664-332 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 364-87. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ which has been called the 'Saite Renaissance'. The Saite kings, from their palace at Memphis, §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 965-69) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ gradually managed to construct a considerably more centralized state than that of the preceding period. §REF§ Joseph G. Manning 2015, personal communication. §REF§ The high point of Saite power was the reign of Amasis II, whose administration commanded sufficient revenues to enable him to build a fleet to conquer Cyprus. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 986) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ An important phenomenon of this period was the development of the Demotic script (from the Greek word <i>demos</i>, 'the people'), which originated in the delta but spread throughout Lower and Upper Egypt under Psamtik I and his successors. §REF§ (Donker van Heel 2012, 25-26) Konrad Donker van Heel. 2012. <i>Djekhy & Son: Doing Business in Ancient Egypt</i>. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ Based on Hieratic, a cursive script using simplified Egyptian hieroglyphics, Demotic was useful in everyday contexts such as accounting, letter-writing and non-religious literature, which grew in importance during the period.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Upper Egypt, which before the Kushites had long been ruled by a militarized priesthood, was always a difficult nut for the central administration in the Nile Delta to crack. At first, the main influence the Saites had over the Twenty-fifth Dynasty aristocracy at Thebes was through the priestly position of the God's Wife of Amun. This was held by a Saite priestess at the Amun temple, and an observer (<i>rsw</i>) based in Thebes who was often called 'governor'. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 978) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ Joseph G. Manning 2015, personal communication. §REF§ Established in the Kushite Period, the God's Wife of Amun role was of 'very great and publicly acknowledged' political importance. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 275) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>To increase their hold over Egypt, Saite strategy, under the first ruler Psamtik I, sought the removal of the nome system of administration; instead a military official was directly appointed to oversee the whole Southern Land (covering the region from Aswan to Memphis). §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 981) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Named leader of the fleet and based in Herakleopolis, this official also acted as the 'revenue accountant for Middle and Upper Egypt'. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 981-83) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The Saite king ruled from Memphis, where there was a High Council of aristocrats who reported directly to him. §REF§ Joseph G. Manning 2015, personal communication. §REF§ The vizier acted as the supreme judge of the realm. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 974) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ In the Late Period, almost all officials were also priests §REF§ (Baines 1991, 198) John Baines. 1991. 'Society, Morality, and Religious Practice', in <i>Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths, and Personal Practice</i>, edited by Byron Esely Shafer, John Baines, Leonard H. Lesko, David P. Silverman, 123-200. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ and oracles featured in the elections of officials and even of kings. §REF§ (Gee 2002, 83) John Gee. 2002. 'Oracle by Image: Coffin Text 103 in Context', in <i>Magic and Divination in the Ancient World</i>, edited by Leda Jean Ciraolo and Jonathan Lee Seidel, 83-88. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The military was usually led by the supreme chief of the expedition, §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 29) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but under Amasis II the chief physician also occupied important military roles such as 'leader of the Aegean foreign (troops)' and 'admiral of the royal fleet'. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 972) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Theban Egypt was not brought under the effective control of the Memphite kings until Psamtik II's campaign against the Kingdom of Napata between 592 and 591, which ended what had essentially been a 'period of compromise' in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 979-81) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Before that time, Saite authority was so weak that they were forced to acknowledge the legitimacy of the Kushite pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. After Psamtik II's military successes of the 590s, however, their policies changed and they began to portray the Nubian kings as usurpers. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 979) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ With the Saite Dynasty now in a more powerful position, there was a return to the nome system of provincial organization, with governors once again stationed in the regions. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 979) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The title of leader of the fleet seems to disappear around this time, §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 981-83) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ and by 592 BCE Herakleopolis had a 'governor'.<br>Unfortunately, again, reliable population estimates at this time are difficult to find, but every indication suggests that the total population remained fairly steady at roughly three million people. §REF§ (Eyre 2010, 303) Christopher Eyre. 2010. 'The Economy: Pharaonic', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 291-308. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 36, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "km squared.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 11000000, "scale_to": 11000000, "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "EgTulIk", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969, "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "new_name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Egypt in the years between 868 and 969 CE is notable for frequent changes in rulers, including three separate regimes in just over a century: the Tulunid Dynasty, the Abbasid Restoration Period, and the Ikshidid Dynasty, which eventually gave way to the Fatimid Caliphate. The Tulunids were a Turkic Dynasty who established an independent rule over Egypt and parts of Syria during a time of instability caused by infighting in the Abbasid court in Damascus. There was a notable 'flowering' of the arts under the Tulunid rulers, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ but the highs and lows of this era of instability are best encapsulated by the reign of Khumarawayh. Although Egypt saw 'peace and prosperity' under his rule, it has been argued that his extravagant lifestyle and 'lavish' spending on building projects and the maintenance of a large standing army 'overtaxed the state's resources'. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ 'When Khumarawayh was murdered by one of his slaves in 896, the treasury was reportedly empty'. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Egypt during the Tulunid-Ikshidid period has been described as 'an autonomous state, albeit under Abbasid suzerainty'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ When Ahmad ibn Tulun was appointed prefect or governor of Egypt in 868 CE, it was a province of the Abbasid Caliphate. Tulun, who was of Turkish ancestry, was recruited from the military §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 24) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Middleton, ed. 2015, 966) J. Middleton, ed. 2015. <i>World Monarchies and Dynasties</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ and 'never formally repudiated Abbasid authority'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 24) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ He took advantage of a revolt in Palestine and Syria to build up a new Egyptian army of Turkish, Nubian, and Greek mercenaries and slaves, which he paid for by seizing control of the revenue of Egypt from the Abbasid-appointed financial director in 871 CE. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ Ibn Tulun also annexed Syria. §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 130) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>With his new army and the Abbasids distracted by unrest in the Levant, Ibn Tulun worked to increase Egyptian autonomy from the caliph in Baghdad; §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ he stopped sending taxes to the Abbasids and established a new capital at al-Qatai, at the neck of the Nile Delta near Fustat. §REF§ (Middleton, ed. 2015, 966) J. Middleton, ed. 2015. <i>World Monarchies and Dynasties</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ This de facto arrangement became official in 886 CE, when a treaty with the Abbasid Dynasty decreed that Khumarawayh and his successors would govern Egypt for a term of three decades §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ - although Egypt would in fact be under Abbasid control again from 905 to 935 CE. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 34) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ After the Ikshidids gained control of Egypt under Muhammad ibn Tughj (935‒946 CE), §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ the Abbasids, in a similar treaty in 939 CE, granted the governorship of Egypt and Syria to 'the Ikshid and his heirs' for 30 years. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>The Tulunid governing apparatus included a vizier, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 35) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ who, after the administrative reforms of Ibn Tulun, §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 130) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ apparently ran a competent bureaucracy that oversaw huge spending projects. Ibn Tulun built an aqueduct and a <i>maristan</i> (hospital), which cost 60,000 dinars. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Founded in 873 CE, the hospital was the first of its kind in Egypt. There was probably a functioning postal system (the Egyptian section of the Abbasid <i>barid</i>). Luxuries were never far away for the affluent elites, who spent their riches freely: Khumarawayh converted the <i>maydan</i> (city square) into a lush garden in the Mesopotamian tradition, while in the Ikshidid period Kafur's palace near the Birkat Qarun cost a monumental 100,000 dinars. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 27, 34) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The population of Egypt and the Levant at this time may have totalled 6.5 million, §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 138, 229) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ and the largest city, Fustat in Egypt, had perhaps 150,000 residents. §REF§ (Modelski 2003, 55) George Modelski. 2003. <i>World Cities -3000 to 2000</i>. Washington, DC: Faros. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 41, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " km squared. Latin Christendom was roughly equivalent to the maximum extent of the former Roman Empire? The rough limits of Christianity in this period: the area that is now northeastern Germany would be converted by force under Charlemagne, while the area south of Rome, in particular Calabria, Puglia, and Basilicata, was as much part of the Eastern Orthodox world as that of Latin Christendom, although these distinctions did not exist then.<br>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 17000000, "scale_to": 17000000, "polity": { "id": 311, "name": "FrCarlL", "start_year": 840, "end_year": 987, "long_name": "Carolingian Empire II", "new_name": "fr_carolingian_emp_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Members of the Carolingian Dynasty had served as mayors of the palace under the Merovingian kings from the late 7th century CE onwards, wielding substantial power behind the throne. In 752 CE, however, Childeric III (last of the Merovingian rulers) was deposed and they seized outright control of the Frankish realm. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 292) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E</a>. §REF§ With the new dynasty the capital moved east: Aachen, or Aix-la-Chapelle, became the main royal residence of the Carolingian monarchs until the empire began to disintegrate in the 9th century. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 31) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Aix-La-Chapelle.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 31-32. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/J93C7T3S\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/J93C7T3S</a>. §REF§ <br>Charlemagne was the most powerful Carolingian king, but after his death in 811 CE, the empire stopped expanding. The year 811 also marked the beginning of a rise in sociopolitical instability that resulted ultimately in a complete split of the kingdom. After the 843 CE Treaty of Verdun, the Carolingian lands were partitioned among Louis the Pious' sons: Charles took the west, Louis the German the east, and Lothair took the Frankish territory between these two regions. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 332) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ The Treaty of Meerssen (870 CE) resulted in the absorption of the central Frankish realm into West and East Francia, forming a boundary that even now endures as the border between France and Germany. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 332-33) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ The empire was briefly reunited from 884 to 887 under Charles the Fat, §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 333) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ but as a rule the Frankish lands remained politically fragmented from the mid-9th century to 987 CE, when power passed to the Capetian Dynasty. §REF§ (Bouchard 1995, 312) Bouchard, Constance B. 1995. “Capetian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 312-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG</a>. §REF§ <br>This polity represents the late period of Carolingian rule, from 840 to 987 CE.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the Carolingian era, the lands under Frankish control grew considerably and an administrative system was developed in order to govern this large territory. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 329-30) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ One official position that first appeared in this period was the <i>missus dominicus</i> (king's representative), who could be sent out from the court to inspect the counties and pass on the king's decrees. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ Decrees were sometimes set down in documents called capitularies. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ However, capitularies post-dating 843 CE are only found in West Francia, and they stopped being produced there too after the death of Charles the Bald in 877. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 318) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Capitulary.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 318-19. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/K3U2V585\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/K3U2V585</a>. §REF§ This might suggest that the office of <i>missus dominicus</i> did not exist beyond that date and did not survive the rise in instability.<br>The Carolingian kings ruled in an essentially decentralized fashion like the Merovingians before them. Control over the regions was delegated to fief holders, often hereditary vassals of the king. §REF§ (Nicolle 1995, 18) Nicolle, David. 2005. Carolingian Cavalryman AD 768-987. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QHXZFXS3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QHXZFXS3</a>. §REF§ The king ruled by decree §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ and under Charlemagne (r. 800-814 CE) counties were established as the basic unit of governance. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ Counts were responsible for enforcing local laws, dispensing justice and setting taxes. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD</a>. §REF§ By 850 CE, almost every county in West Francia also had a viscount, who assisted the count in his duties. §REF§ (Boulton 1995, 1822) Boulton, D’A. Jonathan D. 1995. “Viscount/Viscounty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1822-23. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IZK522AK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IZK522AK</a>. §REF§ <br>During Charlemagne's reign, the population of Gaul probably reached 5 million §REF§ (Percy, Jr. 1995, 1415) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM</a>. §REF§ but levels of urbanization were low in these supposed 'dark ages' of medieval France: no town reached over 10,000 inhabitants between the 8th century and 1000 CE. §REF§ (Percy, Jr. 1995, 1739) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Towns.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1739-40. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z3F9HKUJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z3F9HKUJ</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 21, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " km^2", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 3000000, "scale_to": 4000000, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "CnWeiWS", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225, "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "new_name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The span of time between the mid-5th and mid-3rd centuries BCE in China is known as the Warring States period because it was dominated by conflicts between the seven independent states of Qin, Qi, Chu, Yan, Han, Zhao, and Wei. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Warring States.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States</a>. Accessed June 6, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UFB8K653\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UFB8K653</a>. §REF§ The period was marked by the development of authoritarian leadership, the creation of standing armies, and the mass conscription of peasants into military service. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ New weapons included the crossbow, an improved iron sword, and armour. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ The first appearance of military specialists such as Sunzi, author of <i>The Art of War</i>, dates to the Warring States period. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ <br>The Warring States period was also a time of economic growth. The development of trade, occupational complexity, and markets created a class of merchants and private landlords. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14-15) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ Iron tools were used for agriculture and the use of irrigation and fertilizer became more widespread. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ Intellectualism flourished, with the rise of Confucian philosophers Mengzi and Xunzi. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Warring States.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States</a>. Accessed June 6, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UFB8K653\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UFB8K653</a>. §REF§ <br>In the 5th century BCE, the state of Jin was divided into three states: Wei, Han and Zhao. Wei was one of the largest states of the period, ruling parts of modern Shanxi and later expanding to cover western Shandong and northern and western Henan. §REF§ (Theobald 2010) Theobald, Ulrich. 2017. “The Feudal State of Wei 魏 (www.chinaknowledge.de).” Accessed June 6. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-wei.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-wei.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-wei.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-wei.html</a>. §REF§ During the Warring States period, Wei mounted a number of successful military campaigns against neighbouring states, but fell into decline after a loss to Qi in 341 BCE. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Wei.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Wei-ancient-kingdom-China\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Wei-ancient-kingdom-China</a>. Accessed June 6, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTXFRJWS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTXFRJWS</a>. §REF§ <br>The Warring States period ended with the rise of the Qin state and its defeat of the imperial Zhou court. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 22) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ Qin conquered the state of Wei in 225 BCE. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Wei.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Wei-ancient-kingdom-China\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Wei-ancient-kingdom-China</a>. Accessed June 6, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTXFRJWS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTXFRJWS</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Several of China's major political institutions were created during the Warring States Period. §REF§ (Lewis 1999, 587) Lewis, M.E. 1999b. “Warring States Political History,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 587-650. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ Zhou rulers were replaced by strong authoritarian rulers who governed independent territorial states. §REF§ (Lewis 1999, 587) Lewis, M.E. 1999b. “Warring States Political History,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 587-650. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ These territorial rulers commanded dependent officials, who were responsible for registering and mobilizing peasant households for military service. §REF§ (Lewis 1999, 587) Lewis, M.E. 1999b. “Warring States Political History,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 587-650. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to find substantiated estimates for the population of the Wei state.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:40:00.776345Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }