The Habsburg Dynasty came together as Ferdinand II united the Kingdoms of Aragon and Castile under his rule. When he died in 1516 CE, his grandson Charles I—son of the Aragon Queen Joanna and the Habsburg Philip, a Prince in the Holy Roman Empire—became the first crowned King of All Spain.
The Spanish Habsburg empire held territory in northern Europe, Italy, the Mediterranean, the Americas, Africa, India, and the Orient. “Yet Spain itself was rather unpromising material for greatness; the land was barren, the economy backward and the peninsula was politically fragmented.”
[1]
The Austrian Habsburg family inherited the Valois duchy of Burgundy (present day Holland, Belgium, Luxemburg, and part of Burgundy) and the crowns of Aragon (including Balearics, Sardinia, Naples, and Sicily) and Castile (including Navarre, and the Americas- Mexico and Peru). This territory was inherited by Charles Habsburg (Charles V, 1519-56). When Charles V abdicated in 1555-56 he spilt the territory between his brother and his son (Austrian and Spanish branches of the Habsburgs), thus expanding the Spanish Habsburg Empire even further by 1556.
[1]
Spain’s territorial conquests brought in a wealth of gold and other resources from around the world. This boom led to a rapid growth in urbanization and marketization, as several Spanish cities became major hubs of production for manufactured goods (metal products and textiles especially).
[2]
By 1550 the Habsburg Empire had a population of 29 million across the world, including 9 million native people in the lands they had colonised.
[1]: (Darby 2014, preview). Darby, Graham. 2014. Spain in the seventeenth century. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH
[2]: Pocket World History in Figures
| 30 N |
| Spanish Empire |
| Madrid | |
| Valladolid | |
| Madrid |
| Spanish Empire | |
| Habsburg Empire |
| es_spanish_emp_1 personal union with at_habsburg_1 | 1519 CE 1556 CE |
| House of Bourbon-Spain |
| continuity |
| UNCLEAR: [continuity] | |
| Succeeding: Dutch Empire (nl_dutch_emp_1) [None] | |
| Succeeding: Spanish Empire II (es_spanish_emp_2) [continuity] |
| confederated state |
| 224,000 people | 1600 CE |
| 7,100,000 km2 | 1640 CE |
| 29,000,000 people | 1550 CE |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| absent |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| absent |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| absent |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| present | |
| absent |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| present | |
| absent |
| inferred present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| Year Range | Spanish Empire I (es_spanish_emp_1) was in: |
|---|---|
| (1521 CE 1532 CE) | Valley of Oaxaca |
| (1532 CE 1700 CE) | Valley of Oaxaca Cuzco |
Capital in Madrid was established in 1561. [1]
[1]: (Philips and Philips 2010, 190) Philips, William D. and Carla Rahn Philips. 2010. A Concise History of Spain. Cambridge: CUP. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZT84ZFTP
Capital in Madrid was established in 1561. [1]
[1]: (Philips and Philips 2010, 190) Philips, William D. and Carla Rahn Philips. 2010. A Concise History of Spain. Cambridge: CUP. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZT84ZFTP
Capital in Madrid was established in 1561. [1]
[1]: (Philips and Philips 2010, 190) Philips, William D. and Carla Rahn Philips. 2010. A Concise History of Spain. Cambridge: CUP. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZT84ZFTP
Rule of Philip II
"To Spaniards, he has been the great ruler who guided the empire at the height of its power, the sword arm of Catholicism, defender of the faith and unity of Europe. He has also been called el prudente-"the wise" or "prudent."
[1]
"With the passing of Felipe II, the Spanish politico-military hegemony did not by any means come to an end but would last half a century more. The Spanish sense of providential mission, however, of being the sword arm of Catholic Christendom, of expanding a divinely guided empire, was indeed beginning to wane."
[2]
[1]: (Payne 1973, 256-7) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 1, Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP
[2]: (Payne 1973, 263) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 1, Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP
Charles I (Charles V) held the Archduchy of Austria from 1519 to 1521 before he abdicated as Duke of Austria in favour of his brother, Ferdinand I, who had also been made King of the Romans in 1531. Ferdinand continued to rule in his name as Imperial Lieutenant until Charles I’s abdication in 1556. [1] [2] [3]
[1]: Martyn C. Rady, The Emperor Charles V, Seminar studies in history (London ; New York: Longman, 1988). Zotero link: Y6MXWNC7
[2]: Fichtner, Paula. 2017. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490-1848: Attributes of Empire. Macmillan International Higher Education. 116, 123, 124–5, 130.
[3]: Whaley, Joachim. 2018. "The early modern empire (1): from Maximilian I to the Thirty Years Wars" in The Holy Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
“Ferdinand and Isabella had been remarkably successful in carrying out the union of the two Crowns, but their lack of a male heir threatened to undo that work. As a result of the premature death of their only son, as well as other deaths in the family, their youngest daughter Juana stood to inherit the throne, but Juana, known as ‘La Loca’ was widely deemed incapable of ruling Spain. Because of Juana’s mental state and her marriage to a member of the Habsburg family (rulers of the Holy Roman Empire), it fell to Ferdinand and Isabella’s grandson (and Juana’s son) Charles to inherit the Spanish throne in 1516.” [1]
[1]: (Cowans 2003, 46) Cowans, John. 2003. Early Modern Spain: A Documentary History. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MRSP5DU
“Ferdinand and Isabella had been remarkably successful in carrying out the union of the two Crowns, but their lack of a male heir threatened to undo that work. As a result of the premature death of their only son, as well as other deaths in the family, their youngest daughter Juana stood to inherit the throne, but Juana, known as ‘La Loca’ was widely deemed incapable of ruling Spain. Because of Juana’s mental state and her marriage to a member of the Habsburg family (rulers of the Holy Roman Empire), it fell to Ferdinand and Isabella’s grandson (and Juana’s son) Charles to inherit the Spanish throne in 1516.” [1]
[1]: (Cowans 2003, 46) Cowans, John. 2003. Early Modern Spain: A Documentary History. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MRSP5DU
“Although Castile, with its relatively small population and weak economy, did not have the resources to sustain great-power status on its own, when these were allied with the naval expertise and military manpower of Genoa and Naples, Flemish and Milanese weaponry and American silver, it could. In any event we must be careful not the judge the Monarchy from our own perspective of the compact nation state. The Spanish Habsburgs looked upon their network of domains as a family patrimony, and this concept of patrimony was accepted and understood by the elite.”
[1]
“It was attempts at increasing control beyond what was customary which led to unrest and rebellion, as happened with the Dutch in the sixteenth century and the Portuguese and Catalans in the seventeenth.”
[1]
“In New Spain and Peru, a series of extraordinary vicerorys brought administrative order out of the chaos of conquest and shaped a well-structured hierarchy of power that relied on the loyalty of soldiers, clerics, nobles, bureaucrats, and ordinary citizens…Some area in the Americans continued to resist Spanish control, but overall the empire functioned as an evolving fusion of Spanish and New World laws, peoples, institutions, and social structures.”
[2]
“From the time of Charles V, the military leaders of Italy, notably from the families of Gonzaga, Colonna and Medici, took service with the Spanish crown and helped to impose Spanish influence over the Italian states. At the same time, these military leaders strengthened the links of the Crown with local governing elites. The efficiency of the council of Italy lay in the fact that it was linked to a network of influence that spread throughout Italy. The community of interest, therefore, between local nobility and the distant crown, made it possible for a system of ‘empire’ to develop whereby the ruling circles benefited considerably from the Spanish presence, at the same time as they sought to make that presence less onerous. The crown had two powerful inducements it could use. It could offer posts in the bureaucracy to local nobility and thereby confirm their power; it could also distribute honours, titles, privileges and pensions, and in that way build up a network of eager clients.”
[3]
[1]: (Darby 2014, preview). Darby, Graham. 2014. Spain in the seventeenth century. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH
[2]: (Philips and Philips 2010, 185) Philips, William D. and Carla Rahn Philips. 2010. A Concise History of Spain. Cambridge: CUP. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZT84ZFTP
[3]: (Kamen 2002, 312) Kamen, Henry. 2002. Spain’s Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492-1763. London: Penguin Books. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5IIFB6KQ
Native languages were spoken in the Habsburg empire as well including Quechua, Aymara, Mayan, Tagalog, and Nahautl. [1] [2]
[1]: (Alves, Abel. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. Email. April 2020)
[2]: (Woods 2015. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WWSAZIWU)
Native languages were spoken in the Habsburg empire as well including Quechua, Aymara, Mayan, Tagalog, and Nahautl. [1] [2]
[1]: (Alves, Abel. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. Email. April 2020)
[2]: (Woods 2015. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WWSAZIWU)
Inhabitants.
Naples: 224,000: 1600 CE
[1]
[1]: Chase-Dunn, Christopher, and Alice Willard. 2007. "Populations of Largest Cities in PMNs from 2000BC to 1988AD". Retrieved May 4, 2017. http://irows.ucr.edu/cd/courses/compciv/citypops4000.txt https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D55F2NG3
in squared kilometers
[1]
[2]
Estimates from Taagepera’s graph in "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia."
[1]: (Taagepera 1997, 499) Taagepera, Rein. 1997. "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia." International Studies Quarterly 41(3): 475-504. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5A6JA43D
[2]: (Taagepera 1997, 484) Taagepera, Rein. 1997. "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia." International Studies Quarterly 41(3): 475-504. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5A6JA43D/
People.
"By the middle of the 16th century, The 7.5 million inhabitants of the Spanish kingdoms were the mainstay of the Habsburg Empire, which controlled more than 20 of Europe’s 90 millions and 9m of the 12m natives in the New World."
[1]
Spain: 7,500,000: 1540 CE; 8,500,000: 1590-1600 CE; 7,000,000: 1700 CE
[2]
[3]
Iberian Union: 29,997,000: 1580-1640 CE (estimate from Wikipedia, needs checking and citation)
Spain and Portugal: 9,000,000-9,500,000: 1600 CE
[3]
[1]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 99-100) McEvedy, Colin and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of world population history. Great Britain: Penguin. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6U4QZXCG
[2]: (Payne 1973, 291) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 1, Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP
[3]: (Payne 1973, 267) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 1. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP
levels.
Spain:
1. Capital (Madrid): Permanent court established in the 1560s by Philip II.
[1]
1. Unofficial Capital: Before the 1560s: "The capital was where the monarch, the embodiment of the body politic, was to be found… often Toledo and other leading cities."
[1]
2. Kingdoms/Provinces: Castile, Aragon, Valencia, León, Andalusia, Granada, Catalonia, Murica, Navarre
[2]
3. Regional Capitals: Barcelona, Seville, Zaragoza, Pamplona
[3]
4. Cities: Toledo5. Towns6. Villages7. Rural Settlements
Colonial Outposts
[1]: (Alves, Abel. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email.
[2]: (Sommerville, Johan. “Spain in the Seventeenth Century.” https://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/351/spain.htm https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KQS9J33T)
[3]: Sommerville, Johan. “Spain in the Seventeenth Century.” https://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/351/spain.htm https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KQS9J33T
[4]: (Kamen 2002, 24) Kamen, Henry. 2002. Spain’s Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492-1763. London: Penguin Books. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5IIFB6KQ
levels.
1. Pope
2. King
3. Crown-Cardinal
3. Archbishop: Archbishop of Toledo, Archbishop of Burgos, Archbishop of Seville ("fourth highest ranking in Castilian see succession"), Archbishop of Santiago.
[1]
3. Senior Royal Chaplain (traditionally held by the Archbishop of Santiago)
[2]
3. Grand Almoner
[2]
3. Grand Inquisitor (either a bishop or archbishop)
4. Bishop: In the Americas: “The king personally nominated bishops and abbots to the pope. Members of a cathedral chapter were selected by either the king or the Council of Indies from a list of three names submitted by the bishop. The crown normally delegated the appointment of parish priests to the viceroy or governor.”
[3]
[2]
5. Royal Confessor: "Those religious who had previously served as royal preachers or confessors, as provincials and generals of their orders, as university professors and as theological advisors (calificadores) to the inquisition all became major contenders for promotion to the Castilian episcopal bench."
[4]
5. Royal Preachers: "Those religious who had previously served as royal preachers or confessors, as provincials and generals of their orders, as university professors and as theological advisors (calificadores) to the inquisition all became major contenders for promotion to the Castilian episcopal bench."
[4]
6. Lesser Royal Chaplains
[2]
7. Abbot
[3]
. In the Americas: “The king personally nominated bishops and abbots to the pope. Members of a cathedral chapter were selected by either the king or the Council of Indies from a list of three names submitted by the bishop. The crown normally delegated the appointment of parish priests to the viceroy or governor.”
[3]
8. Parish Priest: In the Americas: “The king personally nominated bishops and abbots to the pope. Members of a cathedral chapter were selected by either the king or the Council of Indies from a list of three names submitted by the bishop. The crown normally delegated the appointment of parish priests to the viceroy or governor.”
[3]
9. Deacon
9. Prior
10. Friar
[5]
10. Monk
[6]
10. Nun
[7]
10. Overseas Missionaries
[8]
[1]: (Rawlings 2005, 457-468) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. "Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach." The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 455-472. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN
[2]: (Rawlings 2005, 457) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. "Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach." The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 455-472. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN
[3]: (Maltby 2009, 91) Maltby, William S. 2009. The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH
[4]: (Rawlings 2005, 461) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. "Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach." The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 455-472. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN
[5]: (Rawlings 2005, 460) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. "Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach." The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 455-472. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN
[6]: (Payne 1973, 377) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 2, Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/spainport2.htm https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z6EHG6PP
[7]: (Payne 1973, 363) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 2, Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/spainport2.htm https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z6EHG6PP
[8]: (Rawlings 2005, 462) Rawlings, Helen. 2005. "Bishops of the Habit in Castile, 1621-1665: A Prosopographical Approach." The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 455-472. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UZVV8CVN
levels.
1. King
2. Chief Secretary of Council of War (inferred)
3. Council of War (Consejo de Guerra)
[1]
_Tercios_ (“Tercios were not, as a rule, employed within Spain, unless other forces could not be raised. Though well organized they were not numerous, and formed only a small proportion of the total forces available to the crown.”)
[2]
4. Captain-General
[3]
5. Maestre del Campo (Field Marshal): “Chosen by the Crown to command a new Tercio, or by the captain-general of a field army to fill a vacancy. He was to pass on the orders given by the captain-general, and to take command in the latter’s absence.”
[3]
6. Sergento Mayor (Sergeant-Major): “The second-in-command of the Tercio, he was responsible for passing on the field marshal’s orders to the captains.”
[4]
7. Capitán (Captain)
[5]
8. Alférez (Ensign, Lieutenant)
[6]
9. Sargento (Sergeant)
[7]
10. Cabo (Corporal)
[7]
11. Specialist: Arquebusier, Musketeer
[7]
12. Coselete: soldier with armor
[7]
13. Pica Seca: soldier without armor
[7]
Headquarters positions:
[1]: (Núñez 2006, 41) Nunez, Alfredo Jiménez. 2006. El Gran Norte de México: Une frontera imperial en la Nueva España (1540-1820). Madrid: Editorial Tebar, S.L. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X
[2]: (Kamen 2002, 359) Kamen, Henry. 2002. Spain’s Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492-1763. London: Penguin Books. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5IIFB6KQ
[3]: (López 2012, 38) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
[4]: (López 2012, 42) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
[5]: (López 2012, 44) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
[6]: (López 2012, 45) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
[7]: (López 2012, 47) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
[8]: (López 2012, 51) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
levels.
1. King
_Central Government_
2. Grand Chancellor
[1]
2. Chief Secretaries of Councils
[1]
3. Consejo de la Cámara de Castilla: small advisory cabinet to the King
[1]
3. Council of State (Consejo de Estado)
[2]
: Archbishop of Toledo, Dukes of Alba and Bėjar, the royal confessor, and the Bishop of Jaén
3. Council of Castile (Consejo de Castilla)
[2]
3. Council of War (Consejo de Guerra)
[2]
3. Council of Finance (Consejo de Hacineda)
[2]
3. Council of Aragon (Consejo de Aragon)
[2]
3. Council of Portugal (Consejo de Portugal)
[2]
3. Council of Flanders (Consejo de Flandes)
[2]
3. Council of the Indes (Consejo de Indias)
[3]
[2]
4. House of Trade (Casa de Contratación)
[4]
4. High Chancellor
[3]
5. Lawyers
[3]
5. Fiscal
[3]
5. Secretaries
[3]
5. Lieutenant Chancellor
[3]
5. Accountants
[3]
6. Auditors
[3]
6. Copyrights
[3]
6. Reporters
[3]
6. Clerks
[3]
3. Cortes Generales
_Aragon, Navarre, and Castile_
1. King
2. Council of Aragon, Castile
2. Cortes in Catalan: Aragon, Navarre and Castile: “Each of the three component states had its own Cortes (Corts in Catalan), but these bodies met together as a Cortes General to deal with matters involving the entire kingdom.”
[5]
3. Deputy of the Generalitat (Cortes subcommittee): “Each body elected a subcommittee of its Cortes known as the Generalitat or Disputacio that contained a deputy and an oidor or an auditor from each of the three estates.”
[5]
4. Low Officials (inferred)
_Colonial Government_
1. Viceroy: chief executive of the colony, representative of the king
[6]
Responsible to the Council of the Indes. "Although they governed from a royal court- situated permanently in Madrid after 1561- the Spanish Habsburgs relied on a decentralized power structure of viceroys, magistrates and royal officials who were stationed in a network of cities from Seville to Brussels and from Naples to Mexico City.”
[7]
"Viceroys represented the crown in Zaragoza, Barcelona, Valencia, Palermo, and Naples, and after the incorporation of Hispanic Navarre (1512), in Pamplona as well. Overseas, powers of viceroy were delegated to Columbus in the first charter of 1492 and subsequently divided between two viceroys in Mexico and Peru. All commerce and navigation with Spanish America was controlled and administered by the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade), an agency of the Council of the Indies established in Seville and modeled, to some extent at least, on the medieval Catalan consulate, though its powers were more extensive and arbitrary."
[4]
1. Captain-general: "Captain-general: “the title of captain-general was primarily of military significance, and it was exercised alike by viceroys and governors; the official designation of the former being ‘my viceroy and captain-general’ and that of the latter being ‘my governor and captain general.” Not all governors were captains-general."
[6]
1. Governor: chief executive of the colony, representative of the king
[6]
1. Audiencia: tribunal of justice and administrative organs
[8]
"“The audiencias of the colonies were alike dependent on the Council of the Indes; common institutions and departments of government existed in Spain for the control and regulations of the tribunals of the colonies. All were of equal judicial rank before the Council of the Indes.”
[9]
2. President
[8]
2. Regent
[8]
2. Magistrate
[8]
3. Criminal alcade
[8]
3. Fiscal
[8]
3. Oidores
[8]
_Provincial Government_
1. Military governors
1. Viceroy: "Viceroys represented the crown in Zaragoza, Barcelona, Valencia, Palermo, and Naples, and after the incorporation of Hispanic Navarre (1512), in Pamplona as well. Overseas, powers of viceroy were delegated to Columbus in the first charter of 1492 and subsequently divided between two viceroys in Mexico and Peru. All commerce and navigation with Spanish America was controlled and administered by the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade), an agency of the Council of the Indies established in Seville and modeled, to some extent at least, on the medieval Catalan consulate, though its powers were more extensive and arbitrary."
[4]
1. Dukes (inferred)2. Provincial Estate: “Each province had its provincial estate, a representative body that included members from the towns and the from the land-holding nobility."
[10]
3. Local government
_Village_
1. Feudal Lord
[11]
2. Alcade Mayor
[11]
3. Regidor
[11]
3. Justice
[11]
4. Market Inspector
[11]
4. Constable
[11]
4. Clerk of the Council
[11]
[1]: (Elliot 1963, preview) Elliot, J.H. 1963. Imperial Spain 1469-1716. London: Edward Arnold.
[2]: (Núñez 2006, 41) Nunez, Alfredo Jiménez. 2006. El Gran Norte de México: Une frontera imperial en la Nueva España (1540-1820). Madrid: Editorial Tebar, S.L. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N28BC89X
[3]: (Cunningham 1919, 25) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800). Berkeley, California: University of California Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR
[4]: (Payne 1973, 256) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 1, Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP
[5]: (Maltby 2009, 38) Maltby, William S. 2009. The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH
[6]: (Cunningham 1919, 16-17) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800). Berkeley, California: University of California Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR
[7]: (Escobar 2016, 259) Escobar, Jesús. 2016. "Architecture in the Age of the Spanish Habsburgs." Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 75(3): 258-261. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F2BFHI82
[8]: (Cunningham 1919, 33) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800). Berkeley, California: University of California Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR
[9]: (Cunningham 1919, 14) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800). Berkeley, California: University of California Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR
[10]: (Maltby 2009, 36) Maltby, William S. 2009. The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH
[11]: (Casey 2002, 102) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
Parish priests, missionaries, friars. [1]
[1]: (Cunningham 1919, 92) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800). Berkeley, California: University of California Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR
’During the sixteenth century, the regular army became a popular institution, and even younger sons of the gentry sometimes served brief periods in the ranks. The officers were almost exclusively Spanishsubjects, until the latter part of the century, and these professionals provided the best leadership to befound in their time."
Town Halls, civic buildings. [1]
[1]: (Escobar 2016, 260) Escobar, Jesús. 2016. "Architecture in the Age of the Spanish Habsburgs." Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 75(3): 258-261. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F2BFHI82
Promotion in the aristocracy through military service. "The military leader was or became an aristocrat ipso facto, and the lower classes often had access to that rank through military achievement." [1] "Letrados could start life as commoners, although upon receiving a university education and serving as bureaucrats, they were treated as hidalgos." [2]
[1]: (Payne 1973, 268) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 1. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP
[2]: (Alves, Abel. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email.)
Promotion in the aristocracy seemed to be through military service or inheritance. [1]
[1]: (Payne 1973, 271) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 1. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP
Lawyers present in the Council of the Indes. [1] [2]
[1]: (Cunningham 1919, 25) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800). Berkeley, California: University of California Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR
[2]: (Casey 2002, 101) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
Judges present in Europe and the colonies. “In 1511, a tribunal of independent royal judges was constituted in the colony of Espanola to try cases appealed from the town magistrates and the governor.” [1] [2]
[1]: (Cunningham 1919, 25.) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800). Berkeley, California: University of California Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CM5NJJRR)
[2]: (Casey 2002, 88) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
Roman and Spanish law. [1]
[1]: (Maltby 2009, 91) Maltby, William S. 2009. The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH
Courts present in Europe and the colonies. “In 1511, a tribunal of independent royal judges was constituted in the colony of Espanola to try cases appealed from the town magistrates and the governor.” [1] [2]
[1]: (Cunningham 1919, 25.) Cunningham, Charles Henry. 1919. The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies As illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583-1800).
[2]: (Escobar 2016, 260) Escobar, Jesus. 2016. "Architecture in the Age of the Spanish Habsburgs." Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 75(3): 258-261. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F2BFHI82
market-places were present [1] "What gave order to Granada, thought its chronicler Bermúdez de Pedraza (1638), was ultimately the network of markets—the plazas or squares, ‘the stomach of this commonwealth, from which food is distributed throughout its members’." [2]
[1]: (Casey 2002, 128) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
[2]: (Casey 2002, 114) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
Sluice gates used for irrigation. [1] "Vilanova de Castelló (Valencia) borrowed heavily over several generations between 1587 and 1645 to build and maintain an irrigation canal." [2] However, there was not systemic nationwide irrigation: "The positive plans (among many fantasies) advocated by the arbitristas included the drastic cutting of government expenditure, the reform of the tax system, the encouragement of immigration into Castile, systematic and extensive irrigation, protection of industry, improvement of transport, and, finally, the sharing of the cost of empire among the constituent kingdoms of the monarchy. These were reasonable proposals, not unlike those put forward by mercantilist writers in the rest of Europe who treated economic activity as a means of increasing the power of the state. But time would show that the Castilian ruling classes would be neither capable nor willing to act on them." [3]
[1]: (Casey 2002, 32) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
[2]: (Casey 2002, 42) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
[3]: -- “Spain | Facts, Culture, History, & Points of Interest.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed May 4, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain/Spain-in-1600. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q2FI5HX5
Seville set up a public granary in 1476. “During the sixteenth century, these municipal granaries (positos) began to spread throughout Castile and Valencia.” [1]
[1]: (Casey 2002, 129) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
“Seville relied partly on water brought fifteen miles from Alcara de Guadaira along an aqueduct built by the Muslims, and on from that Carmona, twenty mile away, running along another Roman aqueduct. A network of underground pipes, made of lead, carried the water to the fountains which stood in every little square and directly to a few of the chief households. Even small towns showed considerable ingenuity: Xativa, with about 8,000 inhabitants, had by the middle of the sixteenth century a new aqueduct to add to the old one, both bringing water from a league or so away. At least a quarter of the houses had their own piped supply.” [1]
[1]: (Casey 2002, 33) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
Spain had a well-developed road system. [1] Improvements of roads and mountain passes were made under Charles III [2]
[1]: (Casey 2002, 23) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
[2]: (Casey 2002, 15) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
Spain had a number of major ports. [1] [2]
[1]: (Casey 2002, 75) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
[2]: (Payne 1973, 296) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 1. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6MIH95XP
"Vilanova de Castelló (Valencia) borrowed heavily over several generations between 1587 and 1645 to build and maintain an irrigation canal." [1]
[1]: (Casey 2002, 42) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
"Churches, town halls, bridges, and public works of all sorts were created in the image of Escorial well into the second quarter of the seventeenth century." [1] "A majority of deputies to the Cortes of 1586-8 criticised the government for authorising too many schemes for bridges, without offering any funds of its own to help along the work." [2]
[1]: (Escobar 2016, 260) Escobar, Jesús. 2016. "Architecture in the Age of the Spanish Habsburgs." Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 75(3): 258-261. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F2BFHI82
[2]: (Casey 2002, 11) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
Mines. [1]
[1]: (Philips and Philips 2010, 193) Philips, William D. and Carla Rahn Philips. 2010. A Concise History of Spain. Cambridge: CUP. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZT84ZFTP
“The sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries were a golden age in theology and devotional writing as well as politics.” [1] [2]
[1]: (Maltby 2009, 91) Maltby, William S. 2009. The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH
[2]: (Cowans 2003, 46) Cowans, John. 2003. Early Modern Spain: A Documentary History. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MRSP5DU
“The sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries were a golden age in theology and devotional writing as well as politics.” [1]
[1]: (Maltby 2009, 91) Maltby, William S. 2009. The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH
“The sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries were a golden age in theology and devotional writing as well as politics.” [1]
[1]: (Maltby 2009, 91) Maltby, William S. 2009. The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH
“The sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries were a golden age in theology and devotional writing as well as politics.” [1] [2]
[1]: (Maltby 2009, 91) Maltby, William S. 2009. The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH
[2]: (Cowans 2003, 46) Cowans, John. 2003. Early Modern Spain: A Documentary History. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MRSP5DU
example: Tomás de Mercado’s Suma de tratos y contratos (On deals and contracts) (1571)- economic science
The Bible (however, Castilian translations were destroyed during the Inquisition) [1]
[1]: (Greenslide 1975, 123) Greenslide, S. L. 1975. The Cambridge History of the Bible: The West from Reformation to Present Day. Cambridge: CUP. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JQ22AIMK
“The sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries were a golden age in theology and devotional writing as well as politics.” [1]
[1]: (Maltby 2009, 91) Maltby, William S. 2009. The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH
example: Tomás de Mercado’s Suma de tratos y contratos (On deals and contracts) (1571)
example: works by Baltasar Gracián and Francisco Suárez
Classifications: “In May 1576 Philip issued a detailed list of forty-nine questions which were to be answered by all officials in America. The questionnaire covered every conceivable topic from botany and geography to economy and religion. The answers, the famous ‘geographic relations’, began to come in from 1577 and trickled through for ten years more.” [1]
[1]: (Kamen 2002, 353) Kamen, Henry. 2002. Spain’s Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492-1763. London: Penguin Books. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5IIFB6KQ
Official cosmographer-historian appointed for America. [1] Official historians. [2] “In subsequent decades, Castilian historians reconciled themselves to the Habsburg dynasty so completely that they presented in their writings a Castile which had become, in the words of the emperor to the Cortes of Valladolid in 1523, ‘the head of all the rest’ (he meant the rest of the peninsular realms).” [3]
[1]: (Kamen 2002, 351) Kamen, Henry. 2002. Spain’s Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492-1763. London: Penguin Books. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5IIFB6KQ
[2]: (Kamen 2002, 204) Kamen, Henry. 2002. Spain’s Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492-1763. London: Penguin Books. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5IIFB6KQ
[3]: (Kamen 2002, 157) Kamen, Henry. 2002. Spain’s Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492-1763. London: Penguin Books. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5IIFB6KQ
Spain adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1582. [1]
[1]: (Kamen 1998, 248) Kamen, Henry. 1998. Philip of Spain. New Haven: Yale University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2SSCBKS
Silver from the Americas used in trade [1]
[1]: (Philips and Philips 2010, 193) Philips, William D. and Carla Rahn Philips. 2010. A Concise History of Spain. Cambridge: CUP. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZT84ZFTP
Banknotes were introduced in 1780 [1]
[1]: (Payne 1973, 365) Payne, Stanley G. 1973. A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 2, Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/spainport2.htm https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z6EHG6PP
Copper coins for petty trade. [1] Silver and gold real coins.
[1]: (Casey 2002, 58) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
ducats, florins [1]
[1]: (Maltby 2009, 35) Maltby, William S. 2009. The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SUSVXWVH
Sugar, spice [1]
[1]: (Casey 2002, 58) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
“A regular postal service was set up between Valencia and Madrid in the early sixteenth century, with riders guaranteeing to cover a minimum of ten leagues a day, and if they were paid extra, up to twenty leagues (112 km).” [1]
[1]: (Casey 2002, 14) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
“A regular postal service was set up between Valencia and Madrid in the early sixteenth century, with riders guaranteeing to cover a minimum of ten leagues a day, and if they were paid extra, up to twenty leagues (112 km).” [1]
[1]: (Casey 2002, 14) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
“A regular postal service was set up between Valencia and Madrid in the early sixteenth century, with riders guaranteeing to cover a minimum of ten leagues a day, and if they were paid extra, up to twenty leagues (112 km).” [1]
[1]: (Casey 2002, 14) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
Wooden palisades used in Callao, Peru [1]
[1]: (Bradley 2009, 54) Bradley, Peter T. 2009. Spain and the Defense of Peru: Royal Reluctance and Colonial Self-Reliance. Lulu.com. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VFMNE6JR
Stone walls built as defences in Peru [1]
[1]: (Bradley 2009, 85) Bradley, Peter T. 2009. Spain and the Defense of Peru: Royal Reluctance and Colonial Self-Reliance. Lulu.com. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VFMNE6JR
"The great economic historian Carande, in the title of a famous essay, called Seville ‘a fortress and a market’, and it is a useful reminder of the twin functions of the Spanish town." [1] Fortress towns. [2]
[1]: (Casey 2002, 115-6) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
[2]: (Casey 2002, 3 Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
Royal Fortress of the Concepcion built in 1663 on the Portuguese-Spanish border area. It’s an example of a starfort.
Moat used as a defence in Peru. [1]
[1]: (Bradley 2009, 58) Bradley, Peter T. 2009. Spain and the Defense of Peru: Royal Reluctance and Colonial Self-Reliance. Lulu.com. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VFMNE6JR
Garrisons [1] "Since the great wars of the fourteenth century, when Barcelona and Valencia built the magnificent fortifications which survived down to the nineteenth century, the walls of Spanish towns had generally been allowed to fall into decline. Travellers from the war-torn Europe of the 1500s and 1600s were surprised at how Spain managed to get along with medieval ramparts, and how little was spent on the bastions and counter-scarps of contemporary defence. But the walls were still used as a control on movement in and out, and particularly for the collection of the sisas or excise tax, which was the basis of municipal budgets." [2] Fortress towns. [3]
[1]: (Bradley 2009, 195) Bradley, Peter T. 2009. Spain and the Defense of Peru: Royal Reluctance and Colonial Self-Reliance. Lulu.com. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VFMNE6JR
[2]: (Casey 2002, 113) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
[3]: (Casey 2002, 3 Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
"Trenches and earthworks" in Callao, Peru [1]
[1]: (Bradley 2009, 54) Bradley, Peter T. 2009. Spain and the Defense of Peru: Royal Reluctance and Colonial Self-Reliance. Lulu.com. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VFMNE6JR
"Trenches and earthworks" at Callao [1]
[1]: (Bradley 2009, 54) Bradley, Peter T. 2009. Spain and the Defense of Peru: Royal Reluctance and Colonial Self-Reliance. Lulu.com. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VFMNE6JR
"Since the great wars of the fourteenth century, when Barcelona and Valencia built the magnificent fortifications which survived down to the nineteenth century, the walls of Spanish towns had generally been allowed to fall into decline. Travellers from the war-torn Europe of the 1500s and 1600s were surprised at how Spain managed to get along with medieval ramparts, and how little was spent on the bastions and counter-scarps of contemporary defence. But the walls were still used as a control on movement in and out, and particularly for the collection of the sisas or excise tax, which was the basis of municipal budgets." [1] Fortress towns. [2]
[1]: (Casey 2002, 113) Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
[2]: (Casey 2002, 3 Casey, James. 2002. Early Modern Spain: A Social History. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNTRSWT
Examples: steel flintlock [1] , steel gauntlets [2]
[1]: (López 2012, 91) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
[2]: (López 2012, 67) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
Examples: iron gunpowder flask [1] , iron kettle hats [2]
[1]: (López 2012, 90) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
[2]: (López 2012, 106) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
Inferred from the absence of tension siege engines in previous and subsequent polities in Cuzco.
Used against the Spanish by the Maya. [1] We need to know whether the Habsburgs used them.
[1]: (Pemberton 2011, preview) Pemberton, John. 2011. Conquistadors: Searching for El Dorado: The Terrifying Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. Canary Press eBooks Limited. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3SI549GS
Used against the Spanish by the Maya. [1] We need to know whether the Habsburgs used them.
[1]: (Pemberton 2011, preview) Pemberton, John. 2011. Conquistadors: Searching for El Dorado: The Terrifying Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. Canary Press eBooks Limited. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3SI549GS
Inferred from presence of self bows from previous and subsequent polities in Cuzco. Did Spanish soldiers ever use New World weapons? Used against the Spanish by Aztecs, Inca, and Maya, etc. [1]
[1]: (Pemberton 2011, preview) Pemberton, John. 2011. Conquistadors: Searching for El Dorado: The Terrifying Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. Canary Press eBooks Limited. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3SI549GS
Did Spanish soldiers ever use New World weapons? Inferred use (even if rarely) against the Incas and Aztecs by Spanish soldiers. “Rocks provided an almost limitless supply of ammunition, and the wooden and stone arrows and javelins could also be manufactured in great numbers.” [1] We don’t know whether the Habsburgs use them themselves.
[1]: (Pemberton 2011, preview) Pemberton, John. 2011. Conquistadors: Searching for El Dorado: The Terrifying Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. Canary Press eBooks Limited. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3SI549GS
Arquebusiers , Muskets
[1]
[1]: (Bradley 2009, 56 ) Bradley, Peter T. 2009. Spain and the Defense of Peru: Royal Reluctance and Colonial Self-Reliance. Lulu.com. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VFMNE6JR
Cannons [1]
[1]: (Bradley 2009, 56 ) Bradley, Peter T. 2009. Spain and the Defense of Peru: Royal Reluctance and Colonial Self-Reliance. Lulu.com. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VFMNE6JR
“The crossbow, too, was only of limited use of the Spanish. It could fire at a superior velocity when compared to the native bows, but that extra power was designed to penetrated metal armour on the European battlefields.” [1]
[1]: (Pemberton 2011, preview) Pemberton, John. 2011. Conquistadors: Searching for El Dorado: The Terrifying Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. Canary Press eBooks Limited. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3SI549GS
Inferred from the absence of composite bows in previous and subsequent polities in Cuzco.
Did Spanish soldiers ever use New World weapons? Used against the Spanish by Maya. [1] We need to know whether the Habsburgs used them.
[1]: (Pemberton 2011, preview) Pemberton, John. 2011. Conquistadors: Searching for El Dorado: The Terrifying Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. Canary Press eBooks Limited. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3SI549GS
Did Spanish soldiers ever use New World weapons? Used against the Spanish by Maya. [1] We need to know whether the Habsburgs used them.
[1]: (Pemberton 2011, preview) Pemberton, John. 2011. Conquistadors: Searching for El Dorado: The Terrifying Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. Canary Press eBooks Limited. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3SI549GS
Did Spanish soldiers ever use New World weapons? Inferred use (even if rarely) against the Incas and Aztecs by Spanish soldiers. Used against the Spanish by the Aztecs: macana wooden clubs. [1]
[1]: (Pemberton 2011, preview) Pemberton, John. 2011. Conquistadors: Searching for El Dorado: The Terrifying Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. Canary Press eBooks Limited. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3SI549GS
“The sword remained as a secondary weapon for hand-to-hand fighting.” [1]
[1]: (López 2012, 87) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
Pikes, lances. [1]
[1]: (Bradley 2009, 54) Bradley, Peter T. 2009. Spain and the Defense of Peru: Royal Reluctance and Colonial Self-Reliance. Lulu.com. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VFMNE6JR
“The company officers carried different polearms. The halberd was the weapon of the sergeants.” “Captains (and sometimes sergeant-majors carried a gineta, with a teardrop-shaped blade above a fringed collar, and the partesana was the weapon of corporals. However these arms were carried as distinctions of status rather than fighting, and captains fought with the weapons of their companies.” [1]
[1]: (López 2012, 86-7) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
“Each fighter was expected to carry a dagger, both as a weapon of last resort and an everyday tool.” [1]
[1]: (López 2012, 87) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
Did Spanish soldiers ever use New World weapons? Inferred use (even if rarely) against the Incas and Aztecs by Spanish soldiers. Used against the Spanish by the Incas. [1]
[1]: (Pemberton 2011, preview) Pemberton, John. 2011. Conquistadors: Searching for El Dorado: The Terrifying Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. Canary Press eBooks Limited. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3SI549GS
Inferred from the absence of elephants in previous polities in Cuzco.
Used for military transportation [1]
[1]: (Bradley 2009, 56) Bradley, Peter T. 2009. Spain and the Defense of Peru: Royal Reluctance and Colonial Self-Reliance. Lulu.com. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VFMNE6JR
Inferred from the absence of camels in previous polities in Cuzco.
Wooden shields [1]
[1]: (Pemberton 2011, preview) Pemberton, John. 2011. Conquistadors: Searching for El Dorado: The Terrifying Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. Canary Press eBooks Limited. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3SI549GS
"The widespread use of firearms and waning popularity of jousting tournaments caused a steep decline in the production of armor in the seventeenth century. Because the symbolic value of armor outlived its effectiveness in battle, sumptuous examples were still made as diplomatic gifts and appeared in portraits of members of the royal family." [1]
[1]: “The Art of Power: Royal Armor and Portraits from Imperial Spain. National Gallery of Art. Web. Accessed May 5, 2017. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WHH6KD3N)
Helmets with “an additional plate or lamellar neck and cheek protection.” [1]
[1]: (López 2012, 93) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
"The widespread use of firearms and waning popularity of jousting tournaments caused a steep decline in the production of armor in the seventeenth century. Because the symbolic value of armor outlived its effectiveness in battle, sumptuous examples were still made as diplomatic gifts and appeared in portraits of members of the royal family." [1] “Captains and wealthier nobles might have three-quarter armour, consisting of a closed helmet, curiass (breastplate), arm defences, and leg defences that ended at the knees. Those of lesser means made do with a helmet and some form of leather or cotton armour. In time, however, the Spanish began to favour the native-style quilted cotton armour, which was far more comfortable to wear in the humid climate of the New World.” [2]
[1]: “The Art of Power: Royal Armor and Portraits from Imperial Spain. National Gallery of Art. Web. Accessed May 5, 2017. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WHH6KD3N)
[2]: (Pemberton 2011, preview) Pemberton, John. 2011. Conquistadors: Searching for El Dorado: The Terrifying Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. Canary Press eBooks Limited. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3SI549GS
"The widespread use of firearms and waning popularity of jousting tournaments caused a steep decline in the production of armor in the seventeenth century. Because the symbolic value of armor outlived its effectiveness in battle, sumptuous examples were still made as diplomatic gifts and appeared in portraits of members of the royal family." [1] “Captains and wealthier nobles might have three-quarter armour, consisting of a closed helmet, curiass (breastplate), arm defences, and leg defences that ended at the knees. Those of lesser means made do with a helmet and some form of leather or cotton armour. In time, however, the Spanish began to favour the native-style quilted cotton armour, which was far more comfortable to wear in the humid climate of the New World.” [2] “The armour used by soldiers of the Tercio diminished over the years. The 16th century heavy coslete who fought exposed in the front several ranks of the squadron wore a full cuirass, a gorget tasset hanging down the thights, armour covering the upper and lower arms, and metal plated gauntlets.” [3]
[1]: “The Art of Power: Royal Armor and Portraits from Imperial Spain. National Gallery of Art. Web. Accessed May 5, 2017. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WHH6KD3N)
[2]: (Pemberton 2011, preview) Pemberton, John. 2011. Conquistadors: Searching for El Dorado: The Terrifying Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. Canary Press eBooks Limited. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3SI549GS
[3]: (López 2012, 91-2) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
“Captains and wealthier nobles might have three-quarter armour, consisting of a closed helmet, curiass (breastplate), arm defences, and leg defences that ended at the knees. Those of lesser means made do with a helmet and some form of leather or cotton armour. In time, however, the Spanish began to favour the native-style quilted cotton armour, which was far more comfortable to wear in the humid climate of the New World.” [1]
[1]: (Pemberton 2011, preview) Pemberton, John. 2011. Conquistadors: Searching for El Dorado: The Terrifying Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. Canary Press eBooks Limited. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3SI549GS
"The widespread use of firearms and waning popularity of jousting tournaments caused a steep decline in the production of armor in the seventeenth century. Because the symbolic value of armor outlived its effectiveness in battle, sumptuous examples were still made as diplomatic gifts and appeared in portraits of members of the royal family." [1] “Captains and wealthier nobles might have three-quarter armour, consisting of a closed helmet, curiass (breastplate), arm defences, and leg defences that ended at the knees. Those of lesser means made do with a helmet and some form of leather or cotton armour. In time, however, the Spanish began to favour the native-style quilted cotton armour, which was far more comfortable to wear in the humid climate of the New World.” [2]
[1]: “The Art of Power: Royal Armor and Portraits from Imperial Spain. National Gallery of Art. Web. Accessed May 5, 2017. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WHH6KD3N)
[2]: (Pemberton 2011, preview) Pemberton, John. 2011. Conquistadors: Searching for El Dorado: The Terrifying Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. Canary Press eBooks Limited. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3SI549GS
"The widespread use of firearms and waning popularity of jousting tournaments caused a steep decline in the production of armor in the seventeenth century. Because the symbolic value of armor outlived its effectiveness in battle, sumptuous examples were still made as diplomatic gifts and appeared in portraits of members of the royal family." [1] “Captains and wealthier nobles might have three-quarter armour, consisting of a closed helmet, curiass (breastplate), arm defences, and leg defences that ended at the knees. Those of lesser means made do with a helmet and some form of leather or cotton armour. In time, however, the Spanish began to favour the native-style quilted cotton armour, which was far more comfortable to wear in the humid climate of the New World.” [2] “Both the classes of pikemen and 16th century arquebusiers usually wore a metal helmet.” [3]
[1]: “The Art of Power: Royal Armor and Portraits from Imperial Spain. National Gallery of Art. Web. Accessed May 5, 2017. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WHH6KD3N)
[2]: (Pemberton 2011, preview) Pemberton, John. 2011. Conquistadors: Searching for El Dorado: The Terrifying Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. Canary Press eBooks Limited. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3SI549GS
[3]: (López 2012, 93) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
"The widespread use of firearms and waning popularity of jousting tournaments caused a steep decline in the production of armor in the seventeenth century. Because the symbolic value of armor outlived its effectiveness in battle, sumptuous examples were still made as diplomatic gifts and appeared in portraits of members of the royal family." [1] “Captains and wealthier nobles might have three-quarter armour, consisting of a closed helmet, curiass (breastplate), arm defences, and leg defences that ended at the knees. Those of lesser means made do with a helmet and some form of leather or cotton armour. In time, however, the Spanish began to favour the native-style quilted cotton armour, which was far more comfortable to wear in the humid climate of the New World.” [2]
[1]: “The Art of Power: Royal Armor and Portraits from Imperial Spain. National Gallery of Art. Web. Accessed May 5, 2017. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WHH6KD3N)
[2]: (Pemberton 2011, preview) Pemberton, John. 2011. Conquistadors: Searching for El Dorado: The Terrifying Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires. Canary Press eBooks Limited. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3SI549GS
"The widespread use of firearms and waning popularity of jousting tournaments caused a steep decline in the production of armor in the seventeenth century. Because the symbolic value of armor outlived its effectiveness in battle, sumptuous examples were still made as diplomatic gifts and appeared in portraits of members of the royal family." [1] “The armour used by soldiers of the Tercio diminished over the years. The 16th century heavy coslete who fought exposed in the front several ranks of the squadron wore a full cuirass, a gorget tasset hanging down the thights, armour covering the upper and lower arms, and metal plated gauntlets.” [2]
[1]: “The Art of Power: Royal Armor and Portraits from Imperial Spain. National Gallery of Art. Web. Accessed May 5, 2017. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WHH6KD3N)
[2]: (López 2012, 91-2) López, Ignacio J.N. 2012. The Spanish Tercios 1536-1704. Osprey Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4EWFWHCQ
The Spanish Armada. "The Armada of 1588 was a much more complex enterprise than the expedition to Lepanto seventeen years earlier had been. It was the most massive high seas fleet that Europe had ever seen, but it was also part of an amphibious operation that planned to ferry much of the Spanish forces in the Low Countries to a land invasion of England. There were some one hundred thirty ships in the Armada." “In the 1550s, two-thirds of the Mediterranean galleys employed by the crown were contracted from private owners, the majority Italians”
[1]
[1]: (Kamen 2002, 305) Kamen, Henry. 2002. Spain’s Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492-1763. London: Penguin Books. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5IIFB6KQ
Canoes in Peru (transportation or military?) [1]
[1]: (Bradley 2009, 197) Bradley, Peter T. 2009. Spain and the Defense of Peru: Royal Reluctance and Colonial Self-Reliance. Lulu.com. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VFMNE6JR