Members of the Carolingian Dynasty had served as mayors of the palace under the Merovingian kings from the late 7th century CE onwards, wielding substantial power behind the throne. In 752 CE, however, Childeric III (last of the Merovingian rulers) was deposed and they seized outright control of the Frankish realm.
[1]
[2]
With the new dynasty the capital moved east: Aachen, or Aix-la-Chapelle, became the main royal residence of the Carolingian monarchs until the empire began to disintegrate in the 9th century.
[3]
Charlemagne was the most powerful Carolingian king, but after his death in 811 CE, the empire stopped expanding. The year 811 also marked the beginning of a rise in sociopolitical instability that resulted ultimately in a complete split of the kingdom. After the 843 CE Treaty of Verdun, the Carolingian lands were partitioned among Louis the Pious’ sons: Charles took the west, Louis the German the east, and Lothair took the Frankish territory between these two regions.
[4]
The Treaty of Meerssen (870 CE) resulted in the absorption of the central Frankish realm into West and East Francia, forming a boundary that even now endures as the border between France and Germany.
[5]
The empire was briefly reunited from 884 to 887 under Charles the Fat,
[6]
but as a rule the Frankish lands remained politically fragmented from the mid-9th century to 987 CE, when power passed to the Capetian Dynasty.
[7]
This polity represents the late period of Carolingian rule, from 840 to 987 CE.
Population and political organization
In the Carolingian era, the lands under Frankish control grew considerably and an administrative system was developed in order to govern this large territory.
[8]
One official position that first appeared in this period was the missus dominicus (king’s representative), who could be sent out from the court to inspect the counties and pass on the king’s decrees.
[9]
Decrees were sometimes set down in documents called capitularies.
[9]
However, capitularies post-dating 843 CE are only found in West Francia, and they stopped being produced there too after the death of Charles the Bald in 877.
[9]
[10]
This might suggest that the office of missus dominicus did not exist beyond that date and did not survive the rise in instability.
The Carolingian kings ruled in an essentially decentralized fashion like the Merovingians before them. Control over the regions was delegated to fief holders, often hereditary vassals of the king.
[11]
The king ruled by decree
[9]
and under Charlemagne (r. 800-814 CE) counties were established as the basic unit of governance.
[9]
Counts were responsible for enforcing local laws, dispensing justice and setting taxes.
[9]
By 850 CE, almost every county in West Francia also had a viscount, who assisted the count in his duties.
[12]
During Charlemagne’s reign, the population of Gaul probably reached 5 million
[13]
but levels of urbanization were low in these supposed ’dark ages’ of medieval France: no town reached over 10,000 inhabitants between the 8th century and 1000 CE.
[14]
[1]: (Wood 1994, 292) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35.
[2]: (Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E.
[3]: (Chazelle 1995, 31) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Aix-La-Chapelle.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 31-32. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/J93C7T3S.
[4]: (Chazelle 1995, 332) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD.
[5]: (Chazelle 1995, 332-33) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD.
[6]: (Chazelle 1995, 333) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD.
[7]: (Bouchard 1995, 312) Bouchard, Constance B. 1995. “Capetian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 312-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG.
[8]: (Chazelle 1995, 329-30) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD.
[9]: (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD.
[10]: (Chazelle 1995, 318) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Capitulary.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 318-19. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/K3U2V585.
[11]: (Nicolle 1995, 18) Nicolle, David. 2005. Carolingian Cavalryman AD 768-987. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QHXZFXS3.
[12]: (Boulton 1995, 1822) Boulton, D’A. Jonathan D. 1995. “Viscount/Viscounty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1822-23. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IZK522AK.
[13]: (Percy, Jr. 1995, 1415) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM.
[14]: (Percy, Jr. 1995, 1739) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Towns.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1739-40. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z3F9HKUJ.
| 31 U |
| Carolingian Empire II |
| Aix La Chapelle |
| Francia |
| de_east_francia nominal allegiance to fr_carolingian_emp_2 | |
| none |
| Latin Christendom |
| Proto-French Kingdom |
| 17,000,000 km2 |
| continuity |
| Succeeding: Proto-French Kingdom (fr_capetian_k_1) [continuity] | |
| Preceding: Carolingian Empire I (fr_carolingian_emp_1) [continuity] |
| nominal | |
| loose |
| 10,000 people |
| 1,200,000 km2 | 850 CE |
| 800,000 km2 | 900 CE |
| 675,000 km2 | 950 CE |
| [7,000,000 to 9,000,000] people | 840 CE 856 CE |
| [5,000,000 to 7,000,000] people | 857 CE 899 CE |
| [4,000,000 to 5,000,000] people | 900 CE 987 CE |
| inferred present |
| present |
| inferred present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred present |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| present |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| absent |
| present |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| present |
| unknown |
| present |
| present |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| inferred present |
| present |
| present |
| unknown |
| present |
| present |
| absent |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred present |
| absent |
| absent |
| present |
| absent |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| absent |
| absent |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| absent |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| present |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| present |
| inferred present |
| present |
| present |
| absent |
| unknown |
| present |
| absent |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| Year Range | Carolingian Empire II (fr_carolingian_emp_2) was in: |
|---|---|
| (840 CE 986 CE) | Paris Basin |
km squared. Latin Christendom was roughly equivalent to the maximum extent of the former Roman Empire? The rough limits of Christianity in this period: the area that is now northeastern Germany would be converted by force under Charlemagne, while the area south of Rome, in particular Calabria, Puglia, and Basilicata, was as much part of the Eastern Orthodox world as that of Latin Christendom, although these distinctions did not exist then.
loose: 840-843 CE; nominal: 844-883 CE; loose: 884-887 CE; nominal: 888-987 CE
Partitioned after the Treaty of Verdun 843 CE, reunited briefly 884-887 CE.
[1]
Rest of the time nominal, although there was no nominal ruler, only the "idea" of the Empire.
Treaty of Mersen 870 CE: kingdom divided into three.
[2]
[1]: (Chazelle 1995, 333)
[2]: (Nicolle 2005, 7)
loose: 840-843 CE; nominal: 844-883 CE; loose: 884-887 CE; nominal: 888-987 CE
Partitioned after the Treaty of Verdun 843 CE, reunited briefly 884-887 CE.
[1]
Rest of the time nominal, although there was no nominal ruler, only the "idea" of the Empire.
Treaty of Mersen 870 CE: kingdom divided into three.
[2]
[1]: (Chazelle 1995, 333)
[2]: (Nicolle 2005, 7)
in squared kilometers.
950 CE: 675,000 KM2 (Kingdom in the region of Gaul)
900 CE: 800,000 (Kingdom in the region of Gaul)
850 CE: 1,200,000 (West, East Francia and Lotharingia)
These numbers are based on the maps at Geacon EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://geacron.com/home-en/?&sid=GeaCron10372 worked out from number of pixels (which you can find from image editor if you take a screen cap of the maps at the same scale) Scale: 200 km. 1 pixel = 20 km2. 1.1 million km2 at maximum extent
in squared kilometers.
950 CE: 675,000 KM2 (Kingdom in the region of Gaul)
900 CE: 800,000 (Kingdom in the region of Gaul)
850 CE: 1,200,000 (West, East Francia and Lotharingia)
These numbers are based on the maps at Geacon EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://geacron.com/home-en/?&sid=GeaCron10372 worked out from number of pixels (which you can find from image editor if you take a screen cap of the maps at the same scale) Scale: 200 km. 1 pixel = 20 km2. 1.1 million km2 at maximum extent
in squared kilometers.
950 CE: 675,000 KM2 (Kingdom in the region of Gaul)
900 CE: 800,000 (Kingdom in the region of Gaul)
850 CE: 1,200,000 (West, East Francia and Lotharingia)
These numbers are based on the maps at Geacon EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://geacron.com/home-en/?&sid=GeaCron10372 worked out from number of pixels (which you can find from image editor if you take a screen cap of the maps at the same scale) Scale: 200 km. 1 pixel = 20 km2. 1.1 million km2 at maximum extent
5 million in Gaul during reign of Charlemagne.
[1]
Territory also included Rhineland in modern Germany, which became East Francia from 844 CE, in northern Italy (until 856 CE) and the low countries. Estimates for these regions based on McEvedy and Jones (1978). Germany about 1 million, low countries about 1 million, Italy 2 million.
[2]
Period from 900 CE loses territory in modern Germany and low countries.
[1]: (Percy Jr 1995, 1415-1417)
[2]: (McEverdy and Jones 1978, 67)
5 million in Gaul during reign of Charlemagne.
[1]
Territory also included Rhineland in modern Germany, which became East Francia from 844 CE, in northern Italy (until 856 CE) and the low countries. Estimates for these regions based on McEvedy and Jones (1978). Germany about 1 million, low countries about 1 million, Italy 2 million.
[2]
Period from 900 CE loses territory in modern Germany and low countries.
[1]: (Percy Jr 1995, 1415-1417)
[2]: (McEverdy and Jones 1978, 67)
5 million in Gaul during reign of Charlemagne.
[1]
Territory also included Rhineland in modern Germany, which became East Francia from 844 CE, in northern Italy (until 856 CE) and the low countries. Estimates for these regions based on McEvedy and Jones (1978). Germany about 1 million, low countries about 1 million, Italy 2 million.
[2]
Period from 900 CE loses territory in modern Germany and low countries.
[1]: (Percy Jr 1995, 1415-1417)
[2]: (McEverdy and Jones 1978, 67)
levels.
Note: hierarchy might need fine-tuning to conditions in Carolingian France
1. Pope
Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs.
[1]
2. Metropolitans and archbishops"the term ’bishop’ applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the ’ecumenical’ patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church."
[2]
"The title ’archbishop’ emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan."
[2]
3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops
[1]
3. Priest"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned."
[2]
4. Deacon"Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese’s finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople."
[3]
4. Deaconess (diakonissa)"The deaconess’s chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women."
[3]
5. Subdeacon"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon."
[4]
6. Reader (anagnostesj"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy."
[4]
7. Minor orders"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes."
[4]
[1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)
[2]: (Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[3]: (Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[4]: (Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
levels.
Early Carolingian
Here too the two structures of the kingdom result in a different military hierarchy.
For the area under direct rule, the structure is: King, vassals (dukes, marquises, lords, barons), sub-vassals (notables/nobles, lords, knights), infantrymen/cavalry
For the area under indirect rule, the structure is: King, Counts/sub-kings, vassals, sub-vassals, infantrymen/cavalry
Marches
established by Charlemagne
[1]
organised along military lines
[1]
commanded by "count of the march" who was also head of the March government
[1]
garrisoned
[1]
[1]: (Chazelle 1995, 1107)
levels.
1. Kings who ruled Kingdoms
King ruled by decree
[1]
After the 843 CE Treaty of Verdun lands partitioned among Louis the Pious’s sons: "to Charles went the western regions, to Louis the German the eastern territories, and to Lothair the middle section."
[2]
Treaty of Meerssen (870 CE) divided the lands of the middle territory between East and West
[2]
Reunited into one kingdom briefly 884-887 CE
[3]
887-898 CE Western territory ruled by a non-Carolingian
[3]
_Court institution_
"Central government was organized under a few major officials: the chancellor, the seneschal, the butler, the chamberlain and the constable. These originated as household officials with specific functions. By the beginning of the twelfth century these offices had been taken over by leading magnates."
[4]
2.3.4.
_ Regional government_
2. Fief holdersVassals with their own fiefs, often hereditary.
[5]
2. Missi dominici (to 877 CE)
Kings representative appointed to inspect counties (noble laymen, bishops or sometimes abbots)
[1]
Passed on king’s law, often recorded in written documents called capitularies
[6]
after 843 CE capitularies were only found in West Francia and then not beyond 877 CE.
[7]
This might suggest the institution of Missi dominici did not exist beyond that date.
Could get involved in local judicial work
[1]
2. Counties ruled by a count3. Viscount was an appointed officer (from 1000 CE hereditary everywhere except Normandy) who was the deputy of a count. about 850 CE "850, virtually every county in the new West Frankish kingdom seems to have been provided with a viscount"
[8]
4.Under Charlemagne (reign 800-814 CE), counties were basic unit of governance
[1]
Count enforced laws and responsible for justice and set taxes
[1]
original duties lost with end of Carolingian administration
[8]
Marches were a form of county, established by Charlemagne
[9]
, organised along military lines
[9]
, commanded by "count of the march" who was also head of the March government
[9]
4. PagiIn 10th century "increasingly powerful" pagi, who were a provincial aristocracy. "In late 10th-century Anjou, for example, a loyal cavalryman might hope to be given authority over part of Count Foulque’s widespread territory."
[5]
[1]: (Chazelle 1995, 330)
[2]: (Chazelle 1995, 332)
[3]: (Chazelle 1995, 333)
[4]: (Bradbury 2013, 249) Jim Bradbury. 2015. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. Routledge.
[5]: (Nicolle 1995, 18)
[6]: (Chazelle 1995, 3308)
[7]: (Chazelle 1995, 330, 318)
[8]: (Boulton 1995, 1823)
[9]: (Chazelle 1995, 1107)
absent but with the exception of bodyguards
professional hierarchy within bodyguard units?
For example, buildings were the coins were minted and buildings for document storage. However, the distinction between many other specialized government buildings and church buildings could be blurred.
Code for Early Carolingian
but informal, i.e. if the rules believed a bureaucrat was competent the bureaucrat was promoted.
Code for Early Carolingian
The number of full time bureaucrats was however very small (maximum a 1000) and most of them were based at Aachen and a smaller number at the other levels of government.
In other words, being literate was sufficient.
Code for Early Carolingian
Self representation was common.
Code for Early Carolingian
There were definitely court buildings, but these were probably used for other purposes.
"France possesses no precious metal resources and little copper. Iron ores are abundant, and there are regional deposits of lead, zinc, and coal. All of these were exploited during the Middle Ages. Evidence for ironworking exists from Merovingian France onward." [1]
[1]: (Hall in Kibler et al 1995, 1177)
"Charles the Bald (r. 840-77) can be seen as France’s first great patron of philosophy, for in 860 it was he who asked Johannes Scottus Eriugena (d. 877) to translate this collection of Neoplatonic works into Latin. Perhaps most noteworthy in Pseudo-Dionysius’s work is the idea that evil qua evil is nonexistent; evil must be regarded merely as a lack of goodness, and it can therefore be described only in negative terms. On the other hand, God as Essence par excellence can never be adequately described in nonessential language. In this way, the foundation was laid down for the reception of ideas of learned ignorance that played an important role especially in medieval philosophical and theological mysticism, such as that of the Victorines in the 12th century and the Parisian Lullists of the late 14th." [1]
[1]: (Vanderjagt in Kibler et al 1995, 1385)
"Martel’s descendants learned the lesson that whoever sponsored history controlled its contents. The Annales regni Francorum (covering 741-829) were probably kept at Charlemagne’s court, while his descendants maintained the three continuations. The first part (for 741-835) of the West Frankish continuation, the Annales Bertiniani, was not official, but the second (for 835-61), written by Bishop Prudentius of Troyes, and the third (for 862-82), by Archbishop Hincmar of Reims, were, as were the Annales Xantenses (covering 790-873), which were partly composed at Aix-la-Chapelle by Gerward, the palace librarian." [1]
[1]: (Shopkow in Kibler et al 1995, 862)
Waltharius, poem, late 9th/early 10th century.
[1]
"Medieval theater originated in the 10th century in the Latin liturgical drama that was associated with the Easter rites of the church."
[2]
Intellectuals at Aix-La-Chapelle
[3]
: Alcuin (early phase); Theodulf of Orleans (early phase); Einhart (early phase); Paul the Deacon (early phase); Paulinus of Aquileia (early phase)
[1]: (Nicolle 1995, 29)
[2]: (Knight 1995, 1714 CE)
[3]: (Chazelle 1995, 31)
At least in the Early Carolingian period the most common foreign coins in use were Byzantine and Arab coins.
Taxes were paid in kind and most people also traded in kind.
General reference for Western Europe 11th and 12th centuries CE: fortifications typically consisted of earth ramparts and timber palisades which were generally surrounded by dry ditches (rather than water-filled for a moat). In the early 12th century CE stone began to replace earth-and-timber defences for walls and for castles (previously often wooden). [1] Since palisades are a very ancient form of fortification we could code inferred present for the period earlier than the 12th century (when it is known they were still used). David Baker says present. [2]
[1]: (Jones 1999, 171-172) Richard L C Jones. Fortifications and Sieges in Western Europe, c.800-1450. Maurice Keen. ed. 1999. Medieval Warfare: A History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[2]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.
David Baker says present. [1] Carolingian castles "used the standard building techniques employed by all since the Romans ... built in stone with crenellation ... round and square tower construction, and interior battlements, often built of wood." [2]
[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.
[2]: (Butt 2002, 38) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.
David Baker says present. [1] "Forts and Castles Castles were not terribly common in the Carolingian age. The great age of castle construction was the eleventh and twelfth centuries during the social, economic, and political revolution that strengthened the aristocracy and handed control of the lands to its members. Castles became essential to maintain this inequitable structure, but in the Carolingian age there were some castles and heavily defended towns that required siege methods to overcome." [2]
[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.
[2]: (Butt 2002, 38) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.
A monastery in a region of recently pacified Saxons had "an encircling moat and a strong wall, which extended to the River Weser. Towers fortified the four corners and gate towers secured the entrance into the monastery precinct. The site was originally the location of a Roman castelllum." [1]
[1]: (Schutz 2004, 354) Herbert Schutz. 2004. The Carolingians in Central Europe, Their History, Arts, and Architecture: A Cultural History of Central Europe, 750-900. BRILL. Leiden.
General reference for Western Europe 11th and 12th centuries CE: fortifications typically consisted of earth ramparts and timber palisades which were generally surrounded by dry ditches (rather than water-filled for a moat). In the early 12th century CE stone began to replace earth-and-timber defences for walls and for castles (previously often wooden). [1] Since earth ramparts are a very ancient form of fortification we could code inferred present for the period earlier than the 12th century (when it is known they were still used). David Baker says present. [2]
[1]: (Jones 1999, 171-172) Richard L C Jones. Fortifications and Sieges in Western Europe, c.800-1450. Maurice Keen. ed. 1999. Medieval Warfare: A History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
[2]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.
General reference for Western Europe 11th and 12th centuries CE: fortifications typically consisted of earth ramparts and timber palisades which were generally surrounded by dry ditches (rather than water-filled for a moat). In the early 12th century CE stone began to replace earth-and-timber defences for walls and for castles (previously often wooden). [1] Since ditches are a very ancient form of fortification we could code inferred present for the period earlier than the 12th century (when it is known they were still used).
[1]: (Jones 1999, 171-172) Richard L C Jones. Fortifications and Sieges in Western Europe, c.800-1450. Maurice Keen. ed. 1999. Medieval Warfare: A History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
David Baker says absent. [1] "Forts and Castles Castles were not terribly common in the Carolingian age. The great age of castle construction was the eleventh and twelfth centuries during the social, economic, and political revolution that strengthened the aristocracy and handed control of the lands to its members. Castles became essential to maintain this inequitable structure, but in the Carolingian age there were some castles and heavily defended towns that required siege methods to overcome." [2] Carolingians built both Roman and Saxon style fortresses. [2]
[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.
[2]: (Butt 2002, 38) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.
Writing in the 14th century, Ibn Hudhayl "described Frankish swords as mudakkar with ’steel edges on an iron body, unlike those of India.’" [1] "The carbon content of Western blades is much lower, but their hardness can be increased by quenching (an easier process when only thin bands of steel along the edges are involved). Despite the evident superiority of crucible steels, Western blades offered a useful combination of properties, at presumably a much lower price, than Oriental ones, and there are references to their being exported to Muslim lands, for examples, Saracen pirates demanded 150 Carolingian swords as part of the ransom for Archbishop Rotland of Arles in 869." [2]
[1]: (Williams 2012, 35) Alan Williams. 2012. The Sword and the Crucible: A History of the Metallurgy of European Swords Up to the 16th Century. BRILL. Leiden.
[2]: (Williams 2012, 36) Alan Williams. 2012. The Sword and the Crucible: A History of the Metallurgy of European Swords Up to the 16th Century. BRILL. Leiden.
David Baker says present. [1] Carolingian period: "Carolingian military organization was based primarily on that of their Merovingian predecessors, who had built on later Roman institutions ... Archers and slingers fighting on foot supported the battle line." [2]
[1]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.
[2]: (Bachrach 2001, x) Barnard S Bachrach. 2001. Early Carolingian Warfare: Prelude to Empire. University of Pennsylvania Press. Philadelphia.
"The bow was first used by the Franks in the 4th century but did not become a required arm of the Frankish infantry until the time of Charlemagne." [1] Cart-drivers given bow and arrow. [2] Wooden staffs were banned and bows were encouraged instead. [3] "The early Frankish bow was a very long (five- to six-foot) yew bow. By the ninth century, a shorter bow was more typical. Unlike the late Roman double-convex bow, which was very much like modern bows, the Frankish bow was straight and flat..." [4]
[1]: (De Vries in Kibler et al 1995, 114)
[2]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 13) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 14) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[4]: (Butt 2002, 43) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.
"The bow was first used by the Franks in the 4th century but did not become a required arm of the Frankish infantry until the time of Charlemagne. These early archers generally were equipped with a short bow of simple wood construction. But in the following centuries bows were improved by the addition of horn, sinew, and glue in a composite construction complete with angled ears to give more pull to the bowstring." [1]
[1]: (De Vries in Kibler et al 1995, 114)
Used by cavalry. [1] Short sword [2] used by infantry. Aristocrats "usually dismounted and fought on foot throughout the Merovingian, Carolingian, and post-Carolingian periods." [3]
[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 13) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Butt 2002, 40) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.
[3]: (Fanning 1995, 346)
Not common as not usually listed as a weapon.
Axes were an infantry weapon. [1] "The seax was a cross between an ax and a short sword. It was single edged, made of iron, and was used for hacking rather than piercing." [2]
[1]: (Butt 2002, 42) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.
[2]: (Butt 2002, 43) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.
Poor men used as infantry carried shield and spear. [1] ET: Presumably this shield would have to have been made out of wood?
[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 13) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Is a large round shield being carried by cavalry in the period art on this page (the authors used it to demonstrate the presence of the stirrup)? [1] Poor men used as infantry carried shield and spear. [2]
[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 13) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
The few who could afford it used body armour. [1] The military retinue of kings and magnates (including clergy) "had the most complete equipment and were virtually professional warriors." [2] David Baker says present. [3]
[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 14) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.
The few who could afford it used body armour. [1] The military retinue of kings and magnates (including clergy) "had the most complete equipment and were virtually professional warriors." [2] David Baker says absent. [3] c1250-1330 CE: "development of weapons capable of piercing mail: the gradual introduction of pieces of plate (at first of whalebone, horn, and boiled leather, as well as of the iron and steel that ultimately prevailed) to cover an ever larger part of the mail). By 1330, every part of the body of a knight was normally protected by one or several plates... By 1410, the various pieces of plate, including a breastplate and backplate instead of the earlier coat of plates, were all connected by straps and rivets in an articulated suit, or ’harness,’ of polished steel." [4]
[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 14) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.
[4]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.
The few who could afford it used body armour. [1] The military retinue of kings and magnates (including clergy) "had the most complete equipment and were virtually professional warriors." [2] David Baker says present. [3]
[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 14) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.
The few who could afford it used body armour. [1] The military retinue of kings and magnates (including clergy) "had the most complete equipment and were virtually professional warriors." [2] David Baker says absent. [3]
[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 14) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.
The few who could afford it used body armour. [1] The military retinue of kings and magnates (including clergy) "had the most complete equipment and were virtually professional warriors." [2] Wealthy expected to use mail armour. [3] David Baker says present. [4]
[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 14) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: (Butt 2002, 40) John J Butt. 2002. Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport.
[4]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.
The few who could afford it used body armour. [1] The military retinue of kings and magnates (including clergy) "had the most complete equipment and were virtually professional warriors." [2] c1250-1330 CE: "development of weapons capable of piercing mail: the gradual introduction of pieces of plate (at first of whalebone, horn, and boiled leather, as well as of the iron and steel that ultimately prevailed) to cover an ever larger part of the mail). By 1330, every part of the body of a knight was normally protected by one or several plates... By 1410, the various pieces of plate, including a breastplate and backplate instead of the earlier coat of plates, were all connected by straps and rivets in an articulated suit, or ’harness,’ of polished steel." [3] David Baker says present. [4]
[1]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 12) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[2]: (Hooper and Bennett 1996, 14) Nicholas Hooper. Matthew Bennett. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages, 768-1487. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
[3]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.
[4]: David Baker. Personal communication to Seshat Databank.