Long Wall List
A viewset for viewing and editing Long Walls.
GET /api/wf/long-walls/?page=3
{ "count": 273, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/wf/long-walls/?page=4", "previous": "https://seshatdata.com/api/wf/long-walls/?page=2", "results": [ { "id": 24, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "long_wall", "long_wall_from": null, "long_wall_to": null, "polity": { "id": 244, "name": "CnWZhou", "start_year": -1122, "end_year": -771, "long_name": "Western Zhou", "new_name": "cn_western_zhou_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Western Zhou Dynasty was the first Chinese state to claim the Mandate of Heaven, the divinely bestowed right to rule. Zhou was a tributary state to Shang until the Zhou king Zhou Wu Wang defeated the last king of Shang in the 1046 BCE Battle of Muye. §REF§ (San 2014, 30) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ Zhou power was consolidated after the Duke of Zhou's defeat of the Rebellion of the Three Guards, led by Shang loyalists and separatist eastern nobles. §REF§ (San 2014, 31) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ In defeating the rebellion, the Zhou state was able to add a large area of land in eastern China to its territory. §REF§ (San 2014, 30) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ <br>The Western Zhou established their capital at Haojing, and the Duke of Zhou later established Chengzhou as a second capital. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, Ulrich. 2000. “Zhou History.” <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/zhou.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/zhou.html</a> Accessed May 31, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V8ABGJAF\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V8ABGJAF</a>. §REF§ In 957 BCE, the Zhou controlled territory covering an estimated 850,000 square kilometres based in the central plains of China.<br>The period was peaceful for the first 75 years of Zhou rule. §REF§ (Shaughnessy 1999, 310-11) Shaughnessy, Edward L. 1999. “Western Zhou History.” In <i>The Cambridge History of Ancient China</i> edited by Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy. Cambridge: CUP. 292-351. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945</a>. §REF§ However, the decentralization of Zhou power into fiefdoms encouraged turmoil between states, popular unrest, and vassal rebellions. §REF§ (Shaughnessy 1999, 310-11) Shaughnessy, Edward L. 1999. “Western Zhou History.” In <i>The Cambridge History of Ancient China</i> edited by Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy. Cambridge: CUP. 292-351. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945</a>. §REF§ The Marquess of Shen sacked Haojing and killed the 12th Zhou king over a succession dispute in 771 BCE. §REF§ (San 2014, 34) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ The crown prince subsequently moved the capital to Luoyang and founded the Eastern Zhou dynasty.<br>The Western Zhou are noted for their introduction of the Mandate of Heaven, their kinship-based feudal system and their use of lineage law. §REF§ (Zhao 2015, 79) Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. <i>The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History.</i> Oxford: OUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5</a>. §REF§ The state's kinship-based feudal system encouraged the spread of Zhou writing, culture and identity. §REF§ (Zhao 2015, 80) Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. <i>The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History.</i> Oxford: OUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5</a>. §REF§ Some scholars have seen Zhou lineage law, with its emphasis on 'lineage rituals, familial ethics, and beneficent rule', as an intellectual precursor of Confucianism. §REF§ (Zhao 2015, 80) Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. <i>The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History.</i> Oxford: OUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5</a>. §REF§ The hierarchies, division of labour and meritocratic practices that emerged under the Western Zhou also helped lay the foundations for the introduction of bureaucracy. §REF§ (Zhao 2015, 80) Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. <i>The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History.</i> Oxford: OUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Western Zhou state was a proto-feudal monarchy in which feudal lords were supported by an extended family network. §REF§ (San 2014, 29) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ The first king of Zhou introduced the <i>fengjian</i> system, which made military leaders and members of the royal family into regional lords ruling over parcels of land. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 9-12) Roberts. John A.G. 1999. <i>A Concise History of China.</i> Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945</a>. §REF§ These fiefdoms were then divided into smaller units and distributed to members of the local rulers' families. §REF§ (San 2014, 29) San, Tan Koon. 2014. <i>Dynastic China: An Elementary History.</i> Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ <br>Individual fiefdoms had their own taxes, legal systems, and currencies but paid dues to the king and provided soldiers in times of need. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 9-12) Roberts. John A.G. 1999. <i>A Concise History of China.</i> Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945</a>. §REF§ This system eventually led to decentralization and the weakening of Zhou rule. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 9-12) Roberts. John A.G. 1999. <i>A Concise History of China.</i> Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945</a>. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to obtain population figures for the Western Zhou period. C. K. Maisels has given an estimate of 13.5 million people in 800 BCE. §REF§ (Maisels 2001, 260) Maisels, C. K. 2001. <i>Early Civilizations of the Old World: The Formative Histories of Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, India, and China</i>. Routledge: London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P9IXAB56\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P9IXAB56</a>. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:30:09.450839Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 25, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "long_wall", "long_wall_from": null, "long_wall_to": null, "polity": { "id": 424, "name": "CnWeiWS", "start_year": -445, "end_year": -225, "long_name": "Early Wei Dynasty", "new_name": "cn_wei_dyn_warring_states", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The span of time between the mid-5th and mid-3rd centuries BCE in China is known as the Warring States period because it was dominated by conflicts between the seven independent states of Qin, Qi, Chu, Yan, Han, Zhao, and Wei. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Warring States.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States</a>. Accessed June 6, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UFB8K653\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UFB8K653</a>. §REF§ The period was marked by the development of authoritarian leadership, the creation of standing armies, and the mass conscription of peasants into military service. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ New weapons included the crossbow, an improved iron sword, and armour. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ The first appearance of military specialists such as Sunzi, author of <i>The Art of War</i>, dates to the Warring States period. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ <br>The Warring States period was also a time of economic growth. The development of trade, occupational complexity, and markets created a class of merchants and private landlords. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14-15) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ Iron tools were used for agriculture and the use of irrigation and fertilizer became more widespread. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ Intellectualism flourished, with the rise of Confucian philosophers Mengzi and Xunzi. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Warring States.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States</a>. Accessed June 6, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UFB8K653\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UFB8K653</a>. §REF§ <br>In the 5th century BCE, the state of Jin was divided into three states: Wei, Han and Zhao. Wei was one of the largest states of the period, ruling parts of modern Shanxi and later expanding to cover western Shandong and northern and western Henan. §REF§ (Theobald 2010) Theobald, Ulrich. 2017. “The Feudal State of Wei 魏 (www.chinaknowledge.de).” Accessed June 6. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-wei.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-wei.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-wei.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-wei.html</a>. §REF§ During the Warring States period, Wei mounted a number of successful military campaigns against neighbouring states, but fell into decline after a loss to Qi in 341 BCE. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Wei.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Wei-ancient-kingdom-China\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Wei-ancient-kingdom-China</a>. Accessed June 6, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTXFRJWS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTXFRJWS</a>. §REF§ <br>The Warring States period ended with the rise of the Qin state and its defeat of the imperial Zhou court. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 22) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ Qin conquered the state of Wei in 225 BCE. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Wei.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/place/Wei-ancient-kingdom-China\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/place/Wei-ancient-kingdom-China</a>. Accessed June 6, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTXFRJWS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTXFRJWS</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Several of China's major political institutions were created during the Warring States Period. §REF§ (Lewis 1999, 587) Lewis, M.E. 1999b. “Warring States Political History,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 587-650. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ Zhou rulers were replaced by strong authoritarian rulers who governed independent territorial states. §REF§ (Lewis 1999, 587) Lewis, M.E. 1999b. “Warring States Political History,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 587-650. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ These territorial rulers commanded dependent officials, who were responsible for registering and mobilizing peasant households for military service. §REF§ (Lewis 1999, 587) Lewis, M.E. 1999b. “Warring States Political History,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 587-650. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to find substantiated estimates for the population of the Wei state.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:40:00.776345Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 26, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "long_wall", "long_wall_from": null, "long_wall_to": null, "polity": { "id": 419, "name": "CnYngsh", "start_year": -5000, "end_year": -3000, "long_name": "Yangshao", "new_name": "cn_yangshao", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Yangshao culture (Miaodigou, Xiyincun) first developed in the Loess plateau in the Holocene period. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 335) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ The culture was present from 5000 to 3000 BCE, extending from the Middle Yellow River Valley to modern Qinghai and Gansu. §REF§ (Tanner 2009, 20) Tanner, Harold Miles. 2009. <i>China: A History</i>. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/46QCS68G\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/46QCS68G</a> §REF§ Yangshao sites are mainly found in the Guanzhong region in Shaanxi, eastern Gansu, western Shanxi, southern Hebei and Henan. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 333) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In <i>East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3)</i>, edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ Yangshao subsisted on wild foods and domesticated millet. Men most likely hunted, and men and women farmed and produced goods. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 336) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In <i>East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3</i>), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ <br>Yangshao villages were often surrounded by a ditch, and contained groups of semi-subterranean round or square houses constructed using the wattle and daub method, a graveyard and a public courtyard. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 334) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In <i>East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3)</i>, edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ Homes contained hearths for cooking and wide benches. §REF§ (Von Falkenhausen 1994, 55) Von Falkenhausen. Lothar. 1994. “Rediscovering the Past.” In <i>China: Ancient Culture, Modern Land</i>, edited by Robert E. Murowchick. Norman Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3</a> §REF§ Yangshao culture is characterized by the presence of painted black and red pottery featuring animals and geometric designs. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 333) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In <i>East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3)</i>, edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ Pottery, jewelry and stone, bone and ceramic tools have been excavated from Yangshao period graves. §REF§ (Von Falkenhausen 1994, 55) Von Falkenhausen. Lothar. 1994. “Rediscovering the Past.” In <i>China: Ancient Culture, Modern Land</i>, edited by Robert E. Murowchick. Norman Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3</a> §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the early Yangshao phase, settlements did not have any detectable hierarchies. In the later phase, structures in the settlements began to vary in size, suggesting the existence of settlement hierarchies. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 334) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In <i>East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3)</i>, edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ In many villages, a large structure is surrounded by smaller dwellings. §REF§ (Von Falkenhausen 1994, 55) Von Falkenhausen. Lothar. 1994. “Rediscovering the Past.” In <i>China: Ancient Culture, Modern Land</i>, edited by Robert E. Murowchick. Norman Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3</a> §REF§ However, grave goods in Yangshao burials suggest a more egalitarian society. §REF§ (Von Falkenhausen 1994, 55) Von Falkenhausen. Lothar. 1994. “Rediscovering the Past.” In <i>China: Ancient Culture, Modern Land</i>, edited by Robert E. Murowchick. Norman Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3</a> §REF§ More information is needed on settlement hierarchy and community organization in the Yangshao period. The population of Yangshao settlements varied- smaller settlements had 70 to 80 members while larger settlements housed a few hundred. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 335) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:28:14.795493Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 27, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "long_wall", "long_wall_from": null, "long_wall_to": null, "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "CnYuan*", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368, "long_name": "Great Yuan", "new_name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After a series of military campaigns, Kublai Khan, leader of the large and powerful Mongolian empire, took control of China and established a new Mongolian dynasty based in the territory of the former Jin empire. This polity, ruling from China, was to be known as the Yuan Dynasty, and lasted from 1271 CE until its eventual demise in 1368. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 603) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ <br>The Yuan Dynasty was a continuation of the Mongolian Empire. However, Genghis Khan's empire had by this time fractured into rival Khanates, including the Chagatai Khanate, the Ilkhanate, and the Golden Horde. Although the Yuan Emperor was the nominal overlord of these regions, the Khanates were effectively independent. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 603) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ The Yuan's core territory covered North China, Manchuria, and the Inner Mongolian steppe, §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 603) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ but military campaigns saw it expand over most of China, Tibet and into Korea. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 604) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ However, their attempt to conquer Japan was thwarted by a typhoon. §REF§ (Morgan 2007, 107) David Morgan. 2007. <i>The Mongols</i>. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Eventually, internal dissensions between the various <i>ordos</i> (political units) and local rebellions dissolved the fabric of the empire and led to its disaggregation. §REF§ (Franke and Twitchett 1994, 26) Herbert Franke and Denis Crispin Twitchett. 1994. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368</i>, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Yuan Empire was a sociopolitical blend of Chinese and Mongolian features. At the top of the administrative, religious and military hierarchy sat the emperor, ruling under the traditional Chinese 'Mandate of Heaven'. §REF§ Connie Cook, Seshat North China Workshop, 2016. §REF§ Kublai Khan was the embodiment of a strong central authority, but the balance he created was only maintained for about 30 years after his death before emperors started to lose internal and external control over the Yuan dominion. §REF§ (Buell 2003, 62) Paul D. Buell. 2003. <i>Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ Administratively, the empire was modelled on its Jin predecessor, and ruled through a variety of entities such as the Secretariat, the Military Affairs Bureau, and the Censorate. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 606) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ However, it also retained Mongolian institutions, such as the <i>keshig</i> (imperial guard) and the <i>ordos</i>, which corresponded to the palace-tents, household and staff of various princes and lords. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 606) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ These <i>ordos</i> acted as separate vassal states under nominal imperial control. §REF§ (Franke and Twitchett 1994, 26) Herbert Franke and Denis Crispin Twitchett. 1994. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368</i>, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In terms of territorial administration, the Yuan Dynasty comprised 12 provinces. §REF§ (Buell 2003, 60) Paul D. Buell. 2003. <i>Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ In total, the population of Yuan China may have been between 60 §REF§ (Mote 1994, 618) Frederick W. Mote. 1994. 'Chinese Society under Mongol Rule, 1215-1368', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368</i>, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 616-64. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and 85 million. §REF§ 《中國人口史》（第三卷）遼宋金元時期.第390頁.吳松弟.復旦大學出版社.2000年12月出版.《中國人口史》共六卷，由葛劍雄教授主編. §REF§ <br>Communications across the vast empire were facilitated by an elaborate postal system, described in detail by Marco Polo. There were 1,400 relay stations located every 25 to 50 kilometres along the main axes of communication, and messengers could cover up to 400 kilometres a day to relay urgent news. §REF§ (Rossabi 1994, 450) Morris Rossabi. 1994. 'The Reign of Khubilai Khan', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368</i>, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Resources could be controlled by the state thanks to the use of paper currency, issued in proportion to silver reserves, and a commercial tax on the government-sponsored <i>ortoq</i> merchant class. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 606) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ Another significant source of wealth was the salt monopoly, which had reached 80 percent of the government's income by 1320. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 606) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ <br>Kublai oversaw the construction of a new capital, known as Dadu to the Chinese, Khanbalik to the Turks and Daidu to the Mongols, on the site of modern Beijing. §REF§ (Rossabi 1994, 454) Morris Rossabi. 1994. 'The Reign of Khubilai Khan', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368</i>, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ At its height, Dadu may have had 600,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 123) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ The location of this city in the vicinity of the northern frontier enabled Kublai to retain control over the Mongolian homeland. §REF§ (Rossabi 1994, 454) Morris Rossabi. 1994. 'The Reign of Khubilai Khan', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368</i>, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Its architecture and design embodied the syncretism of Mongolian and Chinese influences: it featured two inner walls and an imperial city, but also had avenues wide enough for nine horsemen to gallop abreast, and Mongolian yurts flourished in its parks. §REF§ (Rossabi 1994, 454) Morris Rossabi. 1994. 'The Reign of Khubilai Khan', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368</i>, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The court was cosmopolitan and although Kublai followed Tantric Buddhism, he also had Confucian advisors §REF§ Vesna Wallace 2017, personal communication. §REF§ and welcomed foreigners such as the Polo family. The Yuan were patrons of education through state schools and temples; state organizations sponsored the study of Confucianism, astronomy, historiography and medicine. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 606) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ <br>Yuan China encompassed a territory that fluctuated between roughly 11 and 24 million square kilometres, supporting a population of between 60 and 85 million people. §REF§ 《元史‧卷五八‧志第十‧地理一》，記載：「十三年，平宋，全有版圖。二十七年，又籍之，得戶一千一百八十四萬八百有奇。於是南北之戶總書於策者，一千三百一十九萬六千二百有六，口五千八百八十三萬四千七百一十有一，而山澤溪洞之民不與焉。」 §REF§ §REF§ 《中國人口史》（第三卷）遼宋金元時期.第390頁.吳松弟.復旦大學出版社.2000年12月出版.《中國人口史》共六卷，由葛劍雄教授主編。 §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T16:00:20.553956Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 28, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "long_wall", "long_wall_from": null, "long_wall_to": null, "polity": { "id": 435, "name": "CoNahua", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 1050, "long_name": "Neguanje", "new_name": "co_neguanje", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Nahuange or Neguanje phase of Colombian prehistory lasted from about 250 to 1050 CE, according to Santiago Giraldo and Juana Saenz's recent estimates based on radiocarbon-dated goldwork and complete dated contexts. §REF§ (Giraldo 2015, personal communication) §REF§ Nahuange artefacts and sites have mostly been found along Colombia's Atlantic coast. §REF§ (Bray 2003, 322-3) §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Most likely, Nahuange communities were organized into numerous small polities. Unfortunately, there is not enough data to determine the exact relationship between these polities (e.g. if some dominated over others), though it is worth noting that individual polities were probably poorly integrated systems, with little centralization. §REF§ (Langebaek 2005, 87) §REF§ Similarly, little is known about Nahuange social hierarchies, §REF§ (Langebaek 2005, 117) §REF§ or, for that matter, about their population numbers. §REF§ (Langebaek 2005, 27) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2015, personal communication) §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 31, "name": "North Colombia", "subregion": "Caribbean", "longitude": "-73.640388097900", "latitude": "10.780287182100", "capital_city": "Santa Marta", "nga_code": "CO", "fao_country": "Colombia", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 21, "name": "Caribbean", "subregions_list": "Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela", "mac_region": { "id": 6, "name": "South America and Caribbean" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 29, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "long_wall", "long_wall_from": null, "long_wall_to": null, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "CoTairo", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524, "long_name": "Tairona", "new_name": "co_tairona", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The name Tairona is generally used in reference to the indigenous groups of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (a mountain range that stretches along Colombia's Caribbean coast) that came in contact with the Spanish in the sixteenth century, but it is also applied to the prehistoric societies that inhabited that same area, and which are mostly known through the artefacts they left behind. §REF§ (Bray 2003, 301) §REF§ Santiago Giraldo and Juana Saenz have recently estimated that the prehistoric Tairona phase started around 1050 and ended early in the sixteenth century, based on radiocarbon-dated goldwork and complete dated contexts. §REF§ (Giraldo 2015, personal communication) §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>At the time of the Spanish Conquest, the Tairona were organized into independent polities governed by a priestly class and a hierarchy of chiefs. §REF§ (Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 423) §REF§ Most likely, this system began to emerge between the eleventh and the twelfth centuries, as suggested by the appearance of several new ceremonial buildings, new spaces dedicated to feasting activities, a general overhaul of the layout of settlements, and evidence for the expansion and intensification of agricultural activities. §REF§ (Giraldo 2010, 283) §REF§ <br>The population of a typical Tairona polity likely numbered in the hundreds of thousands, with conservative estimates of as much as 500,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Langebaek 2005, 25-7) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2010, 57-58) §REF§ The largest settlements likely reached a population of a few hundred at the beginning of the Tairona phase, between a few hundred and 4,000 between the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries, and between 3,000 and 5,000 in the century immediately preceding the Spanish Conquest. §REF§ (Langebaek 2005, 25-7) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2010, 22-23, 110-111) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2014) §REF§ §REF§ (Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 419-423) §REF§ §REF§ (Moore 2014, 395) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2009, 25) §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 31, "name": "North Colombia", "subregion": "Caribbean", "longitude": "-73.640388097900", "latitude": "10.780287182100", "capital_city": "Santa Marta", "nga_code": "CO", "fao_country": "Colombia", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 21, "name": "Caribbean", "subregions_list": "Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela", "mac_region": { "id": 6, "name": "South America and Caribbean" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 30, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "long_wall", "long_wall_from": null, "long_wall_to": null, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "EcJivaE", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830, "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "new_name": "ec_shuar_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The forested foothills of the Andes, near the border between Ecuador and Peru, have long been inhabited by the Shuar, subsistence horticulturalists living in autonomous residential hamlets. There are many Shuar groups, but here we focus specifically on the Ecuadorian group commonly known simply as 'Shuar'. Europeans - specifically, Spaniards - first encountered the Shuar in the 16th century and soon imposed tributes, which the Shuar paid, in increasing amounts, until they rebelled in 1599, driving the Spanish out of the region. Indeed, the Shuar were able to ward off outside interference up until 1930, just as they were able to avoid being subjugated by the Inca. In 1930, Catholic missionaries persuaded the Ecuadorian government to provide a reservation for the Shuar. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Authority among the Shuar was mostly informal and local, and resided in men referred to as <i>unyä</i> ('big' or 'old' men) or <i>kakaram</i> ('powerful ones'). These were usually renowned warriors or shamans, but they in fact acquired their reputation by being old enough to have grandchildren, as well as through their friendliness, honesty and generosity in dealing with others. The unyä or kakaram were believed to be able to curse to death anyone who angered them. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ <br>The scholarly literature does not provide population estimates, even for the more recent period. Indeed, writing in the 1920s, the ethnographer Fritz W. Up de Graff declared that obtaining accurate statistics relating to the Shuar was an 'impossible task' due to their migratory habits and commitment to concealing their true numbers from potential enemies. §REF§ (Up de Graff 1923, 192-93) Up de Graff, Fritz W. 1923. Head Hunters of the Amazon: Seven Years of Exploration and Adventure. London: H. Jenkins. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 32, "name": "Lowland Andes", "subregion": "Amazonia", "longitude": "-77.674190401400", "latitude": "-2.895375197160", "capital_city": "Logrono", "nga_code": "EC", "fao_country": "Ecuador", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 31, "name": "Amazonia", "subregions_list": "Brazil, Guyanas, plus Amazonian parts of bordering states", "mac_region": { "id": 6, "name": "South America and Caribbean" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 31, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "long_wall", "long_wall_from": null, "long_wall_to": null, "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "EcJivaL", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931, "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "new_name": "ec_shuar_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The forested foothills of the Andes, near the border between Ecuador and Peru, have long been inhabited by the Shuar, subsistence horticulturalists living in autonomous residential hamlets. There are many Shuar groups, but here we focus specifically on the Ecuadorian group commonly known simply as 'Shuar'. Europeans - specifically, Spaniards - first encountered the Shuar in the 16th century and soon imposed tributes, which the Shuar paid, in increasing amounts, until they rebelled in 1599, driving the Spanish out of the region. Indeed, the Shuar were able to ward off outside interference up until 1930, just as they were able to avoid being subjugated by the Inca. In 1930, Catholic missionaries persuaded the Ecuadorian government to provide a reservation for the Shuar. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Authority among the Shuar was mostly informal and local, and resided in men referred to as <i>unyä</i> ('big' or 'old' men) or <i>kakaram</i> ('powerful ones'). These were usually renowned warriors or shamans, but they in fact acquired their reputation by being old enough to have grandchildren, as well as through their friendliness, honesty and generosity in dealing with others. The unyä or kakaram were believed to be able to curse to death anyone who angered them. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ <br>The scholarly literature does not provide population estimates, even for the more recent period. Indeed, writing in the 1920s, the ethnographer Fritz W. Up de Graff declared that obtaining accurate statistics relating to the Shuar was an 'impossible task' due to their migratory habits and commitment to concealing their true numbers from potential enemies. §REF§ (Up de Graff 1923, 192-93) Up de Graff, Fritz W. 1923. Head Hunters of the Amazon: Seven Years of Exploration and Adventure. London: H. Jenkins. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 32, "name": "Lowland Andes", "subregion": "Amazonia", "longitude": "-77.674190401400", "latitude": "-2.895375197160", "capital_city": "Logrono", "nga_code": "EC", "fao_country": "Ecuador", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 31, "name": "Amazonia", "subregions_list": "Brazil, Guyanas, plus Amazonian parts of bordering states", "mac_region": { "id": 6, "name": "South America and Caribbean" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 32, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "long_wall", "long_wall_from": null, "long_wall_to": null, "polity": { "id": 510, "name": "EgBadar", "start_year": -4400, "end_year": -3800, "long_name": "Badarian", "new_name": "eg_badarian", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Badarian, a Neolithic archaeological culture located in Upper Egypt and dating from c. 4400 to 3300 BCE, was first described in 1928 by archaeologists Guy Brunton and Gertrude Caton-Thompson, who excavated in the Badari district near Assyut. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 138) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i> 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ Its relationship to an earlier culture, called the Tasian, is unclear, §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ but there is some evidence to link it to the later Naqada I period in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Little is known of the everyday lives of the people who occupied the Badarian sites: our information comes mainly from the numerous grave sites in the region around Assyut.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Research on Badarian sites has yielded a total of about 600 graves and 40 poorly documented settlements. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The culture was first identified in the el-Badari region, near the modern city of Sohag, but several small sites near the villages of Qau el-Kebir, Hammamiya, Mostagedda, and Matmar are also categorized as Badarian. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Characteristic Badarian material culture has also been discovered much further south at Mahgar Dendera, Armant, Elkab, and Hierakonpolis, as well as to the east of the Nile in the Wadi Hammamat. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The archaeology of the period has inevitably been affected by the flooding of the Nile over the millennia: any larger, more permanent settlements were likely situated close to the great river and subsequently washed away or covered with alluvium. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Surviving remains come from raised desert spurs and include 'huts and windbreaks associated with hearths and large, well-shaped granary pits or silos'. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 153) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i> 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ A Badarian settlement at Deir Tasa covered an area of about 5000 square metres. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 153) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i> 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ At the Seshat standard of 50-200 inhabitants per hectare, this gives us an estimated population between the range of 25 and 100 inhabitants.<br>Evidence from Badarian settlements shows that the people who occupied these sites were primarily engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry, §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ but we know trade also occurred. Badarians imported raw materials like wood, turquoise, shells and ivory and exchanged goods with groups from as far away as Palestine, the Red Sea and Syria. §REF§ (Trigger 1983, 29) Bruce G. Trigger. 1983. 'The Rise of Egyptian Civilization', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i> edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B Lloyd, 1-70. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Model boats found at the site of Merimda to the north 'suggest that boats and canoes were already in use [in Egypt] before 4500 B.C.' §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 157) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i> 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ <br>Very little can be concluded about Badarian political and social structure, but analysis of grave goods shows that there was an unequal distribution of wealth, and that the wealthier graves tended to be kept separate within the cemeteries. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ However, no monumental remains have been found so it is likely that higher-status members of society did not command a significant labour force.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 4, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "long_wall", "long_wall_from": 7200, "long_wall_to": null, "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "CnEHan*", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220, "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "new_name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "China’s Han dynasty is divided into two periods: Western Han or Former Han (202 BCE-9 CE), and Eastern Han or Later Han (25-220 CE). The period between the two Han dynasties was an interregnum ruled by Wang Mang who overthrow the Han and founded the short-lived Xin dynasty.§REF§ (San 2014, 98) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ Rulers of the Western and Eastern Han are descended from Han founder Liu Bang.§REF§ (San 2014, 98) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ The Han dynasty was reinstated when military troops revolted against Wang Mang and attacked the capital of Chang’an in 23 CE.§REF§ (San 2014, 100) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ The first recognized Eastern Han emperor Emperor Guangwudi moved the capital to Luoyang in 25 CE.§REF§ (San 2014, 100) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§<br>Buddhism spread into China during the Eastern Han period. The religion soon began to influence Chinese morals and ethics.§REF§ (San 2014, 103) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ Han innovation continued into the Eastern Han period. The eunuch Cai Lun invented paper made from mulberry bark in 105 CE.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html</a> Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/</a> §REF§<br>The decline of the Eastern Han was marked by series of natural disasters including floods and plagues beginning in 168 CE.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 38) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a> §REF§ The disasters were accompanied by two large peasant uprisings: the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice rebellion.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.<a href=\"http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/\">http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/</a> Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW</a> §REF§ The Eastern Han also faced constant rebellions from Qiang ethnic minorities.§REF§ (San 2014, 108) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ Provincial warlords aided the central government in suppressing these major rebellions. These warlords eventually became rulers of the provinces.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a> Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a> §REF§ Warlord Dong Zhou seized Luoyang in 190 CE but was defeated by the warlord Cao Cao.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a> Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a> §REF§ Eastern Han emperors stayed on the throne but the Han empire was split between three generals, ushering in the Three Kingdoms period.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 39) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a> §REF§<br>Eastern Han territory covered 6.5 million square kilometers in 100 CE, but only 2.5 million square kilometers by 200 CE.§REF§(Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet)§REF§ At its peak, the Han dynasty encompassed modern China, northern Vietnam, Inner Mongolia, southern Manchuria, and parts of modern Korea.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.<a href=\"http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/\">http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/</a> Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW</a> §REF§<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Eastern Han continued many of the administrative practices of the Western Han.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 37) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a> §REF§ However, the dynasty was marked by bloody political infighting including succession conflicts, and attempts to grab power by consort clans and eunuch cliques.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a> Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a> §REF§ Eunuchs had a strong influence in the Eastern Han government and competed with Confucian officials and the imperial clan. §REF§ (San 2014, 117) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ The decline of the Eastern Han was marked by the rise of strong provincial rulers with independent armies, or warlords, and a weakening of the corrupt central government.<br>The population of the Eastern Han was between 48 and 50 million people in 140 CE.§REF§(Roberts 2003, 56-60) Roberts, J A G (2003) The Complete History of China, Sutton Publishing, Stroud. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZZV3ITUI\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZZV3ITUI</a> §REF§. Luoyang was home to 420,000 people in 100 CE, but only 100,000 by 200 CE.§REF§(Modelski 2003, 44) Modelski, G. 2003. World Cities -3000 to 2000. FAROS 2000. Washington D.C. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IVFNX9HJ\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IVFNX9HJ</a> §REF§§REF§(Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet)§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:41:22.175902Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }