Camel List
A viewset for viewing and editing Camels.
GET /api/wf/camels/?ordering=-is_uncertain
{ "count": 361, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/wf/camels/?ordering=-is_uncertain&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 317, "year_from": 1326, "year_to": 1402, "description": " later, yes.§REF§Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "camel", "camel": "present", "polity": { "id": 173, "name": "TrOttm1", "start_year": 1299, "end_year": 1402, "long_name": "Ottoman Emirate", "new_name": "tr_ottoman_emirate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The polity of the Ottomans was originally one of many small Turkish principalities on the border of the Byzantine realm §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 429) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ against whom their ghazi chieftain launched raids for territory and plunder. Through both warfare and diplomacy with farmers, townspeople and Christian nobles, they eventually forced the submission of the western Balkans and then annexed their rival Turkish principalities in western Anatolia. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 429) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ The massive expansion of the Ottoman polity (18,000 km2 in 1320 CE to 690,000 km2 by 1400 CE) came to an abrupt halt with the invasion of Timur in 1402 CE who conquered the Ottomans and made its ruler a vassal. There was then a civil war for control of the Ottoman state which ends the first period (1290-1402 CE).<br>As the polity rapidly expanded, the Ottoman government was run out of a succession of capitals: Sogut (1299-1325 CE), Bursa (1326-1364 CE), and Adrianople (1364-1413 CE) all provided a base for a period. The title of Sultan was introduced in 1383 CE by Murat I (1362-1389 CE). His government was an extension of his court and the top officials were directly appointed, and increasingly powerful through the period. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 148) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ An Imperial Council (divan) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ issued his decrees and made less important and administrative policy decisions. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ Viziers in the government were able to make some appointments in the name of the Sultan at the very least by the fifteenth century. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ The date when the Grand Vizier became the most powerful official in the state is disputed; some scholars believe this occurred c1360 CE §REF§ (Shaw 1976, 22) Stanford J Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. Cambridge University Press. §REF§ while Ottoman tradition has it when Mehmed II stopped attending meetings in early 15th century. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ <br>Provinces with governors probably did not exist until the 1380s CE. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ The rapid increase in size of the Ottoman state meant that the winner of the Ottoman civil war would gain control of territory that held 5 million people.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 45, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " present, if Saites employed bedouins§REF§(Manning 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§ \"Our documentation lays much emphasis on those of Greek and Carian extraction, but we also hear of Jews, Phoenicians, and possibly Shasu Bedouin.\" §REF§(Lloyd 2000, 366)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "camel", "camel": "absent", "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "EgSaite", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525, "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "new_name": "eg_saite", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "If scholars are in disagreement over whether Egypt of the Kushite Empire experienced a period of centralized rule, this undoubtedly did occur during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (664-525 BCE), §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 364) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Late Period (664-332 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 364-87. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ which has been called the 'Saite Renaissance'. The Saite kings, from their palace at Memphis, §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 965-69) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ gradually managed to construct a considerably more centralized state than that of the preceding period. §REF§ Joseph G. Manning 2015, personal communication. §REF§ The high point of Saite power was the reign of Amasis II, whose administration commanded sufficient revenues to enable him to build a fleet to conquer Cyprus. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 986) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ An important phenomenon of this period was the development of the Demotic script (from the Greek word <i>demos</i>, 'the people'), which originated in the delta but spread throughout Lower and Upper Egypt under Psamtik I and his successors. §REF§ (Donker van Heel 2012, 25-26) Konrad Donker van Heel. 2012. <i>Djekhy & Son: Doing Business in Ancient Egypt</i>. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ Based on Hieratic, a cursive script using simplified Egyptian hieroglyphics, Demotic was useful in everyday contexts such as accounting, letter-writing and non-religious literature, which grew in importance during the period.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Upper Egypt, which before the Kushites had long been ruled by a militarized priesthood, was always a difficult nut for the central administration in the Nile Delta to crack. At first, the main influence the Saites had over the Twenty-fifth Dynasty aristocracy at Thebes was through the priestly position of the God's Wife of Amun. This was held by a Saite priestess at the Amun temple, and an observer (<i>rsw</i>) based in Thebes who was often called 'governor'. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 978) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ Joseph G. Manning 2015, personal communication. §REF§ Established in the Kushite Period, the God's Wife of Amun role was of 'very great and publicly acknowledged' political importance. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 275) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>To increase their hold over Egypt, Saite strategy, under the first ruler Psamtik I, sought the removal of the nome system of administration; instead a military official was directly appointed to oversee the whole Southern Land (covering the region from Aswan to Memphis). §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 981) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Named leader of the fleet and based in Herakleopolis, this official also acted as the 'revenue accountant for Middle and Upper Egypt'. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 981-83) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The Saite king ruled from Memphis, where there was a High Council of aristocrats who reported directly to him. §REF§ Joseph G. Manning 2015, personal communication. §REF§ The vizier acted as the supreme judge of the realm. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 974) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ In the Late Period, almost all officials were also priests §REF§ (Baines 1991, 198) John Baines. 1991. 'Society, Morality, and Religious Practice', in <i>Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths, and Personal Practice</i>, edited by Byron Esely Shafer, John Baines, Leonard H. Lesko, David P. Silverman, 123-200. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ and oracles featured in the elections of officials and even of kings. §REF§ (Gee 2002, 83) John Gee. 2002. 'Oracle by Image: Coffin Text 103 in Context', in <i>Magic and Divination in the Ancient World</i>, edited by Leda Jean Ciraolo and Jonathan Lee Seidel, 83-88. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The military was usually led by the supreme chief of the expedition, §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 29) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but under Amasis II the chief physician also occupied important military roles such as 'leader of the Aegean foreign (troops)' and 'admiral of the royal fleet'. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 972) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Theban Egypt was not brought under the effective control of the Memphite kings until Psamtik II's campaign against the Kingdom of Napata between 592 and 591, which ended what had essentially been a 'period of compromise' in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 979-81) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Before that time, Saite authority was so weak that they were forced to acknowledge the legitimacy of the Kushite pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. After Psamtik II's military successes of the 590s, however, their policies changed and they began to portray the Nubian kings as usurpers. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 979) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ With the Saite Dynasty now in a more powerful position, there was a return to the nome system of provincial organization, with governors once again stationed in the regions. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 979) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The title of leader of the fleet seems to disappear around this time, §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 981-83) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ and by 592 BCE Herakleopolis had a 'governor'.<br>Unfortunately, again, reliable population estimates at this time are difficult to find, but every indication suggests that the total population remained fairly steady at roughly three million people. §REF§ (Eyre 2010, 303) Christopher Eyre. 2010. 'The Economy: Pharaonic', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 291-308. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 44, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " present, if Saites employed bedouins§REF§(Manning 2015, Personal Communication)§REF§ \"Our documentation lays much emphasis on those of Greek and Carian extraction, but we also hear of Jews, Phoenicians, and possibly Shasu Bedouin.\" §REF§(Lloyd 2000, 366)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "camel", "camel": "present", "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "EgSaite", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525, "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "new_name": "eg_saite", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "If scholars are in disagreement over whether Egypt of the Kushite Empire experienced a period of centralized rule, this undoubtedly did occur during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (664-525 BCE), §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 364) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Late Period (664-332 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 364-87. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ which has been called the 'Saite Renaissance'. The Saite kings, from their palace at Memphis, §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 965-69) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ gradually managed to construct a considerably more centralized state than that of the preceding period. §REF§ Joseph G. Manning 2015, personal communication. §REF§ The high point of Saite power was the reign of Amasis II, whose administration commanded sufficient revenues to enable him to build a fleet to conquer Cyprus. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 986) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ An important phenomenon of this period was the development of the Demotic script (from the Greek word <i>demos</i>, 'the people'), which originated in the delta but spread throughout Lower and Upper Egypt under Psamtik I and his successors. §REF§ (Donker van Heel 2012, 25-26) Konrad Donker van Heel. 2012. <i>Djekhy & Son: Doing Business in Ancient Egypt</i>. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ Based on Hieratic, a cursive script using simplified Egyptian hieroglyphics, Demotic was useful in everyday contexts such as accounting, letter-writing and non-religious literature, which grew in importance during the period.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Upper Egypt, which before the Kushites had long been ruled by a militarized priesthood, was always a difficult nut for the central administration in the Nile Delta to crack. At first, the main influence the Saites had over the Twenty-fifth Dynasty aristocracy at Thebes was through the priestly position of the God's Wife of Amun. This was held by a Saite priestess at the Amun temple, and an observer (<i>rsw</i>) based in Thebes who was often called 'governor'. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 978) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ Joseph G. Manning 2015, personal communication. §REF§ Established in the Kushite Period, the God's Wife of Amun role was of 'very great and publicly acknowledged' political importance. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 275) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>To increase their hold over Egypt, Saite strategy, under the first ruler Psamtik I, sought the removal of the nome system of administration; instead a military official was directly appointed to oversee the whole Southern Land (covering the region from Aswan to Memphis). §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 981) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Named leader of the fleet and based in Herakleopolis, this official also acted as the 'revenue accountant for Middle and Upper Egypt'. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 981-83) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The Saite king ruled from Memphis, where there was a High Council of aristocrats who reported directly to him. §REF§ Joseph G. Manning 2015, personal communication. §REF§ The vizier acted as the supreme judge of the realm. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 974) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ In the Late Period, almost all officials were also priests §REF§ (Baines 1991, 198) John Baines. 1991. 'Society, Morality, and Religious Practice', in <i>Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths, and Personal Practice</i>, edited by Byron Esely Shafer, John Baines, Leonard H. Lesko, David P. Silverman, 123-200. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ and oracles featured in the elections of officials and even of kings. §REF§ (Gee 2002, 83) John Gee. 2002. 'Oracle by Image: Coffin Text 103 in Context', in <i>Magic and Divination in the Ancient World</i>, edited by Leda Jean Ciraolo and Jonathan Lee Seidel, 83-88. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The military was usually led by the supreme chief of the expedition, §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 29) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but under Amasis II the chief physician also occupied important military roles such as 'leader of the Aegean foreign (troops)' and 'admiral of the royal fleet'. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 972) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Theban Egypt was not brought under the effective control of the Memphite kings until Psamtik II's campaign against the Kingdom of Napata between 592 and 591, which ended what had essentially been a 'period of compromise' in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 979-81) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Before that time, Saite authority was so weak that they were forced to acknowledge the legitimacy of the Kushite pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. After Psamtik II's military successes of the 590s, however, their policies changed and they began to portray the Nubian kings as usurpers. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 979) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ With the Saite Dynasty now in a more powerful position, there was a return to the nome system of provincial organization, with governors once again stationed in the regions. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 979) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The title of leader of the fleet seems to disappear around this time, §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 981-83) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Administration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ and by 592 BCE Herakleopolis had a 'governor'.<br>Unfortunately, again, reliable population estimates at this time are difficult to find, but every indication suggests that the total population remained fairly steady at roughly three million people. §REF§ (Eyre 2010, 303) Christopher Eyre. 2010. 'The Economy: Pharaonic', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 291-308. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 164, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "§REF§(Farrokh 2005, 3-27) Farrokh, Kevah. 2005. Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224-642. Osprey Publishing.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "camel", "camel": "absent", "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "IrSasn1", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487, "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "new_name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Sassanids came from the Parthian province of Persis near the Zagros mountains of western Iran. Ardashir I defeated the last Parthian ruler Ardawan (Artabanus IV) in 224 CE and claimed the title \"King of Kings\" in imitation of the ancient Archaemenids. The early Sassanid rulers claimed a divine descent until powerful Zoroastrian priests ended this by the 4th century. The long reign of Shapur II (309-379 CE) saw the peak of peace and security within the empire §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 2-20, 200) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ that had a total population of perhaps 5 million people.<br>In the early period royal cities were built and administered by shahrabs who ruled as petty kings. §REF§ (Chegini 1996, 45) N N Chegini. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ Centralization occurred in the later Sassanid period when the empire was split into four parts each ruled by a spahbad who had civil and military powers. §REF§ (Chegini 1996, 45) N N Chegini. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ <br>The size of Persian court and bureaucracy notability increases between Ardashir I and Shapur I (240-270 CE). §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 2-20) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ Institutions of administration continued to evolve from those present in the Parthian era §REF§ (Chegini 1996, 45) N N Chegini. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ a grand vizier now present at the central government in the capital Ctesiphon whose remit encompassed control of the diwans, diplomatic affairs as well as occasional stints as commander of the army. §REF§ (Wilcox 1986, 24) P Wilcox. 1986. Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians. Osprey Publishing. §REF§ By the fifth century the centralized bureaucracy was sophisticated enough that \"the death of a king would not bring the empire down.\" §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 196) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>Rise of Zoroastrian Church under Kerdir 274 CE had monumental impact on Persia with the persecution of religious minorities (Christians, Manichaeans, Mandeans, Jews and Buddhists) §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 191) Touraj Daryaee. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ . The Zoroastrian priests had initially tolerated rival religious such as Manichaeism until Shapur I (240-270 CE) but Mani was eventually executed. §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 2-20) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ By the time of Bahram II (274-293 CE) the Sasanian kings themselves had lost their own religious freedom as caretakers of the Anahid fire temple to a priest called Kerdir \"who became the judge of the whole empire. ... from this point on, the priests acted as judges throughout the empire, and court cases were probably based on Zoroastrian law except when members of other religious minorities had disputes with each other.\" §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 191) Touraj Daryaee. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 318, "year_from": 1326, "year_to": 1402, "description": " later, yes.§REF§Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "camel", "camel": "absent", "polity": { "id": 173, "name": "TrOttm1", "start_year": 1299, "end_year": 1402, "long_name": "Ottoman Emirate", "new_name": "tr_ottoman_emirate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The polity of the Ottomans was originally one of many small Turkish principalities on the border of the Byzantine realm §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 429) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ against whom their ghazi chieftain launched raids for territory and plunder. Through both warfare and diplomacy with farmers, townspeople and Christian nobles, they eventually forced the submission of the western Balkans and then annexed their rival Turkish principalities in western Anatolia. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 429) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ The massive expansion of the Ottoman polity (18,000 km2 in 1320 CE to 690,000 km2 by 1400 CE) came to an abrupt halt with the invasion of Timur in 1402 CE who conquered the Ottomans and made its ruler a vassal. There was then a civil war for control of the Ottoman state which ends the first period (1290-1402 CE).<br>As the polity rapidly expanded, the Ottoman government was run out of a succession of capitals: Sogut (1299-1325 CE), Bursa (1326-1364 CE), and Adrianople (1364-1413 CE) all provided a base for a period. The title of Sultan was introduced in 1383 CE by Murat I (1362-1389 CE). His government was an extension of his court and the top officials were directly appointed, and increasingly powerful through the period. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 148) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ An Imperial Council (divan) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ issued his decrees and made less important and administrative policy decisions. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ Viziers in the government were able to make some appointments in the name of the Sultan at the very least by the fifteenth century. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ The date when the Grand Vizier became the most powerful official in the state is disputed; some scholars believe this occurred c1360 CE §REF§ (Shaw 1976, 22) Stanford J Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. Cambridge University Press. §REF§ while Ottoman tradition has it when Mehmed II stopped attending meetings in early 15th century. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ <br>Provinces with governors probably did not exist until the 1380s CE. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ The rapid increase in size of the Ottoman state meant that the winner of the Ottoman civil war would gain control of territory that held 5 million people.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 324, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " For TrByzM1 expert commented that camels were used as pack animal in Cappadocia, in Anatolia.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "camel", "camel": "absent", "polity": { "id": 71, "name": "TrRomDm", "start_year": 285, "end_year": 394, "long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate", "new_name": "tr_roman_dominate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Roman Principate is generally regarded as ending during or just after the crisis of the 3rd century CE (235-284 CE). The date of 284 CE marks the accession of Diocletian §REF§ (Boatwright et al. 2012, 438) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. <i>The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire</i>. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§ and the period includes the Constantinian Dynasty (305-363 CE), Valentinian Dynasty (364-378 CE) and the early part of the Theodosian dynasty (379-457 CE). According to the historian David Baker, the 'Eastern Empire enjoyed an expansion phase c. 285-450'. §REF§ (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. 'The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory'. <i>Cliodynamics</i> 2 (2): 217-51. §REF§ The period ends after the reign of Theodosius, the last emperor to rule over both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire. §REF§ (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. <i>The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East</i>. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§ <br>Near the end of the 3rd century, beginning at the end of the Severan Dynasty, the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes, including the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain and suffered several significant losses in battle to the Sassanids. Under first the Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) then Diocletian (r. 284-305), all territory was recovered and a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire, which we refer to as the Dominate (denoting the increasing centralization of authority and the development of a large bureaucratic apparatus). This period saw notably the increasing popularization of Christianity, culminating in its acceptance as the official state religion under the Emperor Theodosius at the end of the period. The late 3rd century also saw the Empire split into two distinct administrative halves: a Western half, with its capital at Rome, and an Eastern one, ruled first from Nicomedia in Anatolia and then from Byzantium (re-founded as Constantinople, modern-day Istanbul, by the Emperor Constantine I the Great in 330 CE). Each half was ruled by a different emperor along with a junior colleague, titled 'Caesar'. This arrangement is known as the Tetrarchy ('rule of four'), which lasted until Constantine I managed to once again rule both halves together. The Empire was divided a few more times, until Theodosius (r. 379-392 CE) united it for the final time. In 393, Theodosius once more divided the Empire, naming Arcadius Emperor in the East and Honorius Emperor in the West. This marks the end of the Dominate period, leading to a period of instability and, ultimately, the collapse of the Roman state in the west, yet recovery and the continuation of Roman rule in the east (which became known as the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople's original name).<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Dominate period, the power centre of the Roman Empire shifted decisively away from Rome and Italy, beset by decades of crisis and civil infighting, to Anatolia; specifically, to the old Greek city of Byzantium that was re-founded and glorified by the Emperor Constantine I. Before this, Diocletian brought stability back to the Empire after the crises of the 3rd century CE by inaugurating a series of administrative and economic reforms. Although most offices and institutions of the preceding Principate period were retained, Diocletian increased the number of provinces, adding more governors and provincial officials who reported directly to the emperor, and further split the empire into two halves to aid in the administration of such a vast and diverse territory. §REF§ (Black 2008, 181) Jeremy Black. 2008. <i>World History Atlas</i>. London: Dorling Kindersley. §REF§ §REF§ (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. <i>The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The early Dominate is known for the decline of autonomy, prestige, and power of Rome's provincial elite and the concomitant rapid increase in the power of the central bureaucracy. §REF§ (Loewenstein 1973, 238) Karl Loewenstein. 1973. <i>The Governance of Rome</i>. The Hague: Martin Nijhoff. §REF§ §REF§ (Eich 2005) Peter Eich. 2005. <i>Zur Metamorphose des politischen Systems in der römischen Kaiserzeit: Die Entstehung einer \"personalen Bürokratie\" im langen dritten Jahrhundert</i>. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. §REF§ §REF§ (Eich 2015) Peter Eich. 2015. 'The Common Denominator: Late Roman Imperial Bureaucracy from a Comparative Perspective', in <i>State Power in Ancient China and Rome</i>, edited by Walter Scheidel, 90-149. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>When Constantine I established Constantinople as the capital in 330 CE, he furnished the city with a palace, hippodrome, and a great imperial bureaucracy. In terms of personnel the administration in Constantinople reached its largest extent in the 4th century with 'somewhat over thirty thousand functionaries'. §REF§ (Lendon 1997, 3) J. E. Lendon. 1997. <i>Empire of Honour: The Art of Government in the Roman World</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Constantine was the first emperor to vigorously promote Christian religion and his patronage of the Christian church laid the foundations of a Christian empire. 'He built grand churches at the sacred loci of Christianity, including churches celebrating Christ's birth, baptism, and resurrection and Peter's death in Rome. ... Constantine's successors would continue this pattern. Many churches would become quite wealthy. Their clergy were exempt from taxation and other onerous obligations like labor.' §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 20) Kevin Madigan. 2015. <i>Medieval Christianity: A New History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ <br>The Empire, creaking under its vast territory of 4.5 million square kilometres, supported a population of up to 70 million people. Rome had lost population from its peak under the Principate, probably supporting around 800,000 in 300 CE and around 500,000 by the beginning of the 5th century. Constantinople also had slightly under 500,000 inhabitants, though it developed rapidly under the patronage of Constantine I and his successors and became the new centre of literacy and culture in the Roman world - rivalling, if not surpassing, Rome herself. §REF§ (Lee 2013, 76) A. D. Lee. 2013. <i>From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-10-23T16:18:53.388454Z", "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 163, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "§REF§(Farrokh 2005, 3-27) Farrokh, Kevah. 2005. Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224-642. Osprey Publishing.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "camel", "camel": "present", "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "IrSasn1", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487, "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "new_name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Sassanids came from the Parthian province of Persis near the Zagros mountains of western Iran. Ardashir I defeated the last Parthian ruler Ardawan (Artabanus IV) in 224 CE and claimed the title \"King of Kings\" in imitation of the ancient Archaemenids. The early Sassanid rulers claimed a divine descent until powerful Zoroastrian priests ended this by the 4th century. The long reign of Shapur II (309-379 CE) saw the peak of peace and security within the empire §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 2-20, 200) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ that had a total population of perhaps 5 million people.<br>In the early period royal cities were built and administered by shahrabs who ruled as petty kings. §REF§ (Chegini 1996, 45) N N Chegini. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ Centralization occurred in the later Sassanid period when the empire was split into four parts each ruled by a spahbad who had civil and military powers. §REF§ (Chegini 1996, 45) N N Chegini. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ <br>The size of Persian court and bureaucracy notability increases between Ardashir I and Shapur I (240-270 CE). §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 2-20) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ Institutions of administration continued to evolve from those present in the Parthian era §REF§ (Chegini 1996, 45) N N Chegini. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ a grand vizier now present at the central government in the capital Ctesiphon whose remit encompassed control of the diwans, diplomatic affairs as well as occasional stints as commander of the army. §REF§ (Wilcox 1986, 24) P Wilcox. 1986. Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians. Osprey Publishing. §REF§ By the fifth century the centralized bureaucracy was sophisticated enough that \"the death of a king would not bring the empire down.\" §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 196) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>Rise of Zoroastrian Church under Kerdir 274 CE had monumental impact on Persia with the persecution of religious minorities (Christians, Manichaeans, Mandeans, Jews and Buddhists) §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 191) Touraj Daryaee. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ . The Zoroastrian priests had initially tolerated rival religious such as Manichaeism until Shapur I (240-270 CE) but Mani was eventually executed. §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 2-20) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ By the time of Bahram II (274-293 CE) the Sasanian kings themselves had lost their own religious freedom as caretakers of the Anahid fire temple to a priest called Kerdir \"who became the judge of the whole empire. ... from this point on, the priests acted as judges throughout the empire, and court cases were probably based on Zoroastrian law except when members of other religious minorities had disputes with each other.\" §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 191) Touraj Daryaee. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 323, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " For TrByzM1 expert commented that camels were used as pack animal in Cappadocia, in Anatolia.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "camel", "camel": "present", "polity": { "id": 71, "name": "TrRomDm", "start_year": 285, "end_year": 394, "long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate", "new_name": "tr_roman_dominate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Roman Principate is generally regarded as ending during or just after the crisis of the 3rd century CE (235-284 CE). The date of 284 CE marks the accession of Diocletian §REF§ (Boatwright et al. 2012, 438) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. <i>The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire</i>. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§ and the period includes the Constantinian Dynasty (305-363 CE), Valentinian Dynasty (364-378 CE) and the early part of the Theodosian dynasty (379-457 CE). According to the historian David Baker, the 'Eastern Empire enjoyed an expansion phase c. 285-450'. §REF§ (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. 'The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory'. <i>Cliodynamics</i> 2 (2): 217-51. §REF§ The period ends after the reign of Theodosius, the last emperor to rule over both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire. §REF§ (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. <i>The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East</i>. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§ <br>Near the end of the 3rd century, beginning at the end of the Severan Dynasty, the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes, including the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain and suffered several significant losses in battle to the Sassanids. Under first the Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) then Diocletian (r. 284-305), all territory was recovered and a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire, which we refer to as the Dominate (denoting the increasing centralization of authority and the development of a large bureaucratic apparatus). This period saw notably the increasing popularization of Christianity, culminating in its acceptance as the official state religion under the Emperor Theodosius at the end of the period. The late 3rd century also saw the Empire split into two distinct administrative halves: a Western half, with its capital at Rome, and an Eastern one, ruled first from Nicomedia in Anatolia and then from Byzantium (re-founded as Constantinople, modern-day Istanbul, by the Emperor Constantine I the Great in 330 CE). Each half was ruled by a different emperor along with a junior colleague, titled 'Caesar'. This arrangement is known as the Tetrarchy ('rule of four'), which lasted until Constantine I managed to once again rule both halves together. The Empire was divided a few more times, until Theodosius (r. 379-392 CE) united it for the final time. In 393, Theodosius once more divided the Empire, naming Arcadius Emperor in the East and Honorius Emperor in the West. This marks the end of the Dominate period, leading to a period of instability and, ultimately, the collapse of the Roman state in the west, yet recovery and the continuation of Roman rule in the east (which became known as the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople's original name).<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Dominate period, the power centre of the Roman Empire shifted decisively away from Rome and Italy, beset by decades of crisis and civil infighting, to Anatolia; specifically, to the old Greek city of Byzantium that was re-founded and glorified by the Emperor Constantine I. Before this, Diocletian brought stability back to the Empire after the crises of the 3rd century CE by inaugurating a series of administrative and economic reforms. Although most offices and institutions of the preceding Principate period were retained, Diocletian increased the number of provinces, adding more governors and provincial officials who reported directly to the emperor, and further split the empire into two halves to aid in the administration of such a vast and diverse territory. §REF§ (Black 2008, 181) Jeremy Black. 2008. <i>World History Atlas</i>. London: Dorling Kindersley. §REF§ §REF§ (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. <i>The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The early Dominate is known for the decline of autonomy, prestige, and power of Rome's provincial elite and the concomitant rapid increase in the power of the central bureaucracy. §REF§ (Loewenstein 1973, 238) Karl Loewenstein. 1973. <i>The Governance of Rome</i>. The Hague: Martin Nijhoff. §REF§ §REF§ (Eich 2005) Peter Eich. 2005. <i>Zur Metamorphose des politischen Systems in der römischen Kaiserzeit: Die Entstehung einer \"personalen Bürokratie\" im langen dritten Jahrhundert</i>. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. §REF§ §REF§ (Eich 2015) Peter Eich. 2015. 'The Common Denominator: Late Roman Imperial Bureaucracy from a Comparative Perspective', in <i>State Power in Ancient China and Rome</i>, edited by Walter Scheidel, 90-149. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>When Constantine I established Constantinople as the capital in 330 CE, he furnished the city with a palace, hippodrome, and a great imperial bureaucracy. In terms of personnel the administration in Constantinople reached its largest extent in the 4th century with 'somewhat over thirty thousand functionaries'. §REF§ (Lendon 1997, 3) J. E. Lendon. 1997. <i>Empire of Honour: The Art of Government in the Roman World</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Constantine was the first emperor to vigorously promote Christian religion and his patronage of the Christian church laid the foundations of a Christian empire. 'He built grand churches at the sacred loci of Christianity, including churches celebrating Christ's birth, baptism, and resurrection and Peter's death in Rome. ... Constantine's successors would continue this pattern. Many churches would become quite wealthy. Their clergy were exempt from taxation and other onerous obligations like labor.' §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 20) Kevin Madigan. 2015. <i>Medieval Christianity: A New History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ <br>The Empire, creaking under its vast territory of 4.5 million square kilometres, supported a population of up to 70 million people. Rome had lost population from its peak under the Principate, probably supporting around 800,000 in 300 CE and around 500,000 by the beginning of the 5th century. Constantinople also had slightly under 500,000 inhabitants, though it developed rapidly under the patronage of Constantine I and his successors and became the new centre of literacy and culture in the Roman world - rivalling, if not surpassing, Rome herself. §REF§ (Lee 2013, 76) A. D. Lee. 2013. <i>From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-10-23T16:18:53.388454Z", "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 63, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "camel", "camel": "absent", "polity": { "id": 452, "name": "FrHallD", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -475, "long_name": "Hallstatt D", "new_name": "fr_hallstatt_d", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Hallstatt culture, named after an archaeological site in Austria and traditionally divided into four phases, was the main cultural complex in Western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It coincides with the North Alpine complex, extending over modern-day central and southern Germany, northern Italy, and Switzerland. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Hallstatt D period (c. 600-475 BCE) §REF§ (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In <i>Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ</a>. §REF§ saw the intensification of processes that had been occurring throughout the Hallstatt era. Some polities disintegrated while others gained power. Thus, the number of hillforts decreased but they grew in size; §REF§ (Allen 2007, 26-27) Allen, Stephen. 2007. <i>Lords of Battle: The World of the Celtic Warrior.</i> Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F9D9PI8A\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F9D9PI8A</a>. §REF§ Mont Lassois is a prime example. §REF§ (Collis 1984, 16) Collis, John. 1984. <i>The European Iron Age.</i> London; New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS</a>. §REF§ Chiefs controlled the prestige economy at the local level, trading with their Mediterranean counterparts. Extreme social differentiation can be observed in burials; §REF§ (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In <i>Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ</a>. §REF§ the lavish Vix Burial, a cairn 42 metres wide and 6 metres high associated with the site of Mont Lassois, §REF§ (Collis 1984, 16, 95) Collis, John. 1984. <i>The European Iron Age.</i> London; New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS</a>. §REF§ includes gold and bronze objects as well as prestigious imports.<br>This period was also marked by the rise of urban centres specializing in administrative and mercantile activities, including colonies and entrepôts established for the purpose of long-distance trade. §REF§ (Collis 1984, 22) Collis, John. 1984. <i>The European Iron Age.</i> London; New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS</a> §REF§ Population estimates are more easily accessible for the Hallstatt D period. The Heuneburg, a hillfort reaching c. 100 hectares in the mid-6th century BCE, may have been home to about 5000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Fernández Götz and Krausse 2012, 31) Fernández-Götz, Manuel, and Dirk Krausse. 2012. “Heuneburg. First City North of the Alps.” <i>Current World Archaeology</i>, no. 55: 28-34. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/PMS9IF2F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/PMS9IF2F</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 62, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "camel", "camel": "absent", "polity": { "id": 451, "name": "FrHallC", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -600, "long_name": "Hallstatt C", "new_name": "fr_hallstatt_c", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Hallstatt culture, named after an archaeological site in Austria and traditionally divided into four phases, was the main cultural complex in Western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It coincides with the North Alpine complex, extending over modern-day central and southern Germany, northern Italy, and Switzerland. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the Hallstatt C period, which lasted from around 700 to 600 BCE, §REF§ (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In <i>Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ</a>. §REF§ Hallstatt polities became increasingly integrated into the Mediterranean economy. Although the settlement pattern was still rather decentralized, §REF§ (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In <i>Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ</a>. §REF§ this period saw the proliferation of fortified sites. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 15) Brun, Patrice. 1995. \"From chiefdom to state organization in Celtic Europe.\" In <i>Celtic chiefdom, Celtic state. New Directions in Archaeology</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 13-25. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ These elevated settlements, covering between one and ten hectares, sprang up at strategic locations such as the confluence of rivers. They were often enclosed by earthworks and walls and associated with burial mounds and tumuli. §REF§ (Arnold and Gibson 1995, 7) Arnold, Bettina, and D. Blair Gibson. 1995. “Introduction: Beyond the Mists: Forging an Ethnological Approach to Celtic Studies.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and Gibson, 1-7. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/583XXU9Z\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/583XXU9Z</a>. §REF§ <br>Another important development of the Hallstatt C period was an increasing diversity in material culture, especially in ceramic and metal objects, as seen in the elaborate bronze hoards dating to this period. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 15) Brun, Patrice. 1995. \"From chiefdom to state organization in Celtic Europe.\" In <i>Celtic chiefdom, Celtic state. New Directions in Archaeology</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 13-25. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ The variability of artefact types may indicate the fragmentation of cultural zones and the creation of myriad princely territories with an average radius of c. 30 kilometres. §REF§ (Brun 2007, 381) Brun, Patrice. 2007. “Une Période de Transition Majeure En Europe: De La Fin Du IVe Au Début Du IIe s. Av. J.-C.(La Tène B2 et C).” In <i>La Gaule Dans Son Contexte Européen Aux IV e et III e Siècle Avant Notre Ère</i>, edited by Christine Mennessier-Jouannet, Anne-Marie Adam, and Pierre-Yves Milcent, 377-84. Lattes: Edition de l’Association pour le Développement de l’Archéologie en Languedoc-Roussillon. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ</a>. §REF§ It is possible that a four-tiered administrative hierarchy developed during the Hallstatt C period. §REF§ (Arnold and Gibson 1995, 6-7) Arnold, Bettina, and D. Blair Gibson. 1995. “Introduction: Beyond the Mists: Forging an Ethnological Approach to Celtic Studies.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and Gibson, 1-7. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/583XXU9Z\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/583XXU9Z</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }