Polity Population List

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            "description": "{[3,000,000-5,000,000]; 2,500,000}: 100 BCE<br>TC: figures below refer to Egypt specfically:<br>3,000,000-5,000,000 Egypt 100 BCE.<br>Fischer-Bovet book is out in 2014<br>Clarysse and Thompson §REF§W. Clarysse and D. Thompson, Counting the People in Hellenistic Egypt. Cambridge, 2006§REF§ offer an estimate (for Egypt) of around 2.8 mln which is based upon census figures.<br>F. Hassan provides an estimate for Egypt which is also less than 3 mln. W. Scheidel prefers a number closer to 5 mln. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011 gives 3.5 mln. ca. BCE 100. §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/180468/ancient-Egypt/22341/The-Ptolemaic-dynasty?anchor=ref936466\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/180468/ancient-Egypt/22341/The-Ptolemaic-dynasty?anchor=ref936466</a>§REF§<br>C. Fischer-Bovet, \"Counting the Greeks in Egypt. Immigration in the first century of Ptolemaic rule,\" in Demography in the Graeco-Roman World, ed. C. Holleran and A. Pudsey. Cambridge, 2011, pp. 135-54 reviews earlier estimations, and suggests a population in the Third century BC of 4 mln, with Greeks representing ca. 5% of the total.<br>Korotaev and Khaltourina's estimated population dynamics of Egypt 300-1900 CE. §REF§(Korotaev and  Khaltourina 2006, 38)§REF§Korotaev and Khaltourina's data (Egypt only)300 BCE: 3,000,000200 BCE: 4,000,000100 BCE: 2,500,0001 CE: 3,500,000<br>",
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            "polity": {
                "id": 207,
                "name": "EgPtol2",
                "start_year": -217,
                "end_year": -30,
                "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II",
                "new_name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Ptolemaic Kingdom (or Empire) was one of the successor states to the Macedonian Empire created by the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BCE. When Alexander died in Babylon in 323, Ptolemy, as one of his most favoured generals and bodyguards, was appointed satrap (governor) of Egypt, Libya and parts of Arabia. §REF§ (Hӧlbl 2001, 12, 14) Günther Hӧlbl. 2001. <i>A History of the Ptolemaic Empire</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The next few decades after 323 were characterized by incessant warfare between those who wished to maintain the unity of the Macedonian Empire, nominally still intact, §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  and those who aspired to rule their own kingdoms independently. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Ptolemy was firmly on the separatist side, and in 305 BCE he successfully declared himself king of Egypt. In doing so, he became Ptolemy I Soter ('the saviour') §REF§ (Thompson 2005, 113) Dorothy J. Thompson. 2005. 'The Ptolemies and Egypt', in <i>A Companion to the Hellenistic World</i>, edited by Andrew Erskine, 105-20. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ , founder of a powerful dynasty (sometimes known as the Lagides, after his father Lagos) §REF§ (Myśliwiec 2000, 179) Karol Myśliwiec. 2000. <i>The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E.</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  that was to rule Egypt for almost three centuries.<br>Ptolemy I and his successors had expansionist ambitions, seeking to carve out more and more territory for their new kingdom, often at the expense of the other kingdoms that had splintered from Alexander's empire, especially the Seleucid Kingdom of the Middle East. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  At its greatest extent, the Ptolemaic Empire reached as far south as Lower Nubia (southern Egypt), west to Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya), east to Cyprus, Syria, Phoenicia and Asia Minor (Turkey), and north into the Aegean. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169-71) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  In the words of one researcher, Egypt became for the first time a true 'Mediterranean power' under its new Macedonian rulers. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The peak of the Ptolemaic period is generally considered to correspond to the reigns of the first three Ptolemies in the 3rd century BCE. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 11) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  We divide the kingdom into two polities: the first begins with Ptolemy I's accession in 305 and ends with the Battle of Raphia in 217. In this battle, Ptolemy IV defeated the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who had invaded Ptolemaic-controlled lands in Palestine. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 394) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The late 3rd and early 2nd centuries saw conflict within the ruling family and revolts by the Egyptian population, representing an 'age of crisis' between two periods of relative stability. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 165-66) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Our second polity runs from 217 up to the famous suicide of Cleopatra VII, the last ruler in the Ptolemaic line, and the Roman annexation of Egypt in 30 BCE. §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  §REF§ (Newman 2015) Frances Stickney Newman. 2015. 'Cleopatra VII', in <i>Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia</i>. Ipswich, MA: Salem Press. Accessed 22 February 2017. §REF§  Overall, the Ptolemies were a successful dynasty: in concert with their expansionist policies, they managed to transform Egypt ‒ and the new city of Alexandria in particular ‒ into the cultural and economic centre of the Hellenistic world. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 173-75) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The Ptolemies were the longest-lived foreign dynasty ever to rule Egypt. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 159) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  They presided over a 'double society', portraying themselves as Graeco-Macedonian kings to the many resident Greeks and divine pharaohs to the 'native' Egyptian population. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 33, 37) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Greeks and Egyptians were subject to different judicial systems and Greeks tended to dominate the highest echelons of society. §REF§ (Manning 2003, 53, 131) J. G. Manning. 2003. <i>Land and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Structure of Land Tenure</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 409) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Alexandria, built as an ideal Greek-style Hellenistic city with its magnificent library, stadium, theatre, gymnasium and lighthouse, was always set apart from the rest of the country. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 174) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 400-01) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Over time, however, and especially from 200 BCE onwards, the boundaries between 'Greek' and 'Egyptian' became blurred. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171-73) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The chief aim of government was to draw as much revenue ‒ in money and in wheat ‒ as possible from the population, and for this reason the burden of taxation was heavy. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 78) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  The Ptolemies left many Pharaonic Egyptian institutions intact, such as the temple hierarchy with its priests and scribes. However, they used state functionaries and tax farmers to divert more and more wealth from temples, agricultural estates, especially those of granted to soldiers (known as cleruchs), and ordinary peasant farmers to the royal coffers. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 404-05) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Egypt under the Ptolemies also became more outward-looking, extending commercial and political power into the Levant, the Black Sea and the shores of the Mediterranean as far west as Sicily. §REF§ (Thompson and Buraselis 2013, 2-4) Dorothy J. Thompson and Kostas Buraselis. 'Introduction', in <i>The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power</i>, edited by Kostas Buraselis, Mary Stefanou and Dorothy J. Thompson, 1-18. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The population of Egypt during the Ptolemaic period has been estimated at around 4 million people in the 3rd century BCE, of which between 5 and 10 percent were Greeks. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2011, 135-37) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2011. 'Counting the Greeks in Egypt: Immigration in the First Century of Ptolemaic Rule', in <i>Demography in the Graeco-Roman World</i>, edited by C. Holleran and A. Pudsey, 135-54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The total population of the entire Ptolemaic Empire may have reached 7 million. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 149) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",
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                    "id": 5,
                    "name": "Upper Egypt",
                    "subregion": "Northeastern Africa",
                    "longitude": "32.714706000000",
                    "latitude": "25.725715000000",
                    "capital_city": "Luxor",
                    "nga_code": "EG",
                    "fao_country": "Egypt",
                    "world_region": "Africa"
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            "description": " Priesler-Keller writes that due to a lack of empire-wide census, a population estimate of 5-7.5million is plausible for the Parthian Empire. §REF§(Priesler-Keller, Johannes. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email.§REF§<br>[50,000-100,000]: 200 BCE; 5,450,000: 100 BCE; {7,500,000; 15,000,000; 25,000,000}: 1 CE; 4,750,000: 100 CE; 5,000,000: 200 CE<br>Estimates derived from McEvedy and Jones§REF§(McEvedy and Jones 1978) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd.§REF§<br>200 BCE - occupied the very south-west corner of Central Asia. McEvedy and Jones have 1,000,000 for the whole region at this time. Considering lack of major population center in this region, at most 10% of this total.<br>100 BCE - 200,000 in Central Asia, 1,250,000 in Iraq, 4,000,000 in Iran<br>1 CE - 500,000 in Central Asia, 2,000,000 in Afghanistan, 4,000,000 in Iran, 1,000,000 in Iraq, ? in Pakistan (mountains region).<br>100 CE - 3,750,000 in Iran, 1,000,000 in Iraq<br>200 CE - 4,000,000 in Iran, 1,000,000 in Iraq<br>Maximum extent estimates<br>10-20 million - Durand (1977)§REF§(Korotaev 2006, 12) Korotaev, A. V. 2012. Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends in Africa. Editorial URSS.§REF§<br>25 million - Truxillo (2008)§REF§(Truxillo 2008, 71) Truxillo, Charles A. 2008. Periods of World History: A Latin American Perspective. Jain Publishing Company.§REF§",
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            "polity": {
                "id": 125,
                "name": "IrPart1",
                "start_year": -247,
                "end_year": 40,
                "long_name": "Parthian Empire I",
                "new_name": "ir_parthian_emp_1",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The first ruler of the Parthian dynasty was Arsaces who lived at about 240 BCE §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 16) JAcob Neusner. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf &amp; Stock. Eugene. §REF§  but the founder of the Parthian Empire (171 BCE - 40 CE period) was Mithridates I, who initiated the Parthian conquest of Persia and Babylonia from the Seleucids. §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 16) Jacob Neusner. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf &amp; Stock. Eugene. §REF§  The Parthians were essentially \"a military aristocracy\" §REF§ (Dabrowa 2012, 180) Edward Dabrowa. The Arcasid Empire. in Daryaee, Touraj ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. §REF§  that ruled the many different peoples (e.g. Persians, Greeks, Jews, Babylonians) who lived in Persia and Babylonia.<br>Parchments and ostra found at Dura-Europas show the Parthians had \"an extensive and developed bureaucracy\". §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) G A Koshelenko. V N Pilipko. in Ahmad Hasan Dani. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. §REF§  The Parthians, who were originally a nomadic tribe (the Parni) from northeastern Iran §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) G A Koshelenko. V N Pilipko. in Ahmad Hasan Dani. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. §REF§ , conquered Seleucid territory that already possessed municipal, provincial (satrapal) and central government. The Parthians had some centralized institutions but these were not based at a capital city but \"moved from city to city along with their administration.\" §REF§ Khodadad Rezakhani. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/</a> §REF§ <br>The Parthian nobility was inserted into the regional governance structures they inherited §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 18) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf &amp; Stock. Eugene. §REF§  as satraps appointed by the king, while much of the rest of the territory consisted of directly granted personal fiefs §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 18) Jacob Neusner. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf &amp; Stock. Eugene. §REF§  or vassal kingdoms. §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1994, 141) G A Koshelenko. V N Pilipko. Parthia. in Janos Harmatta. B N Puri. G F Etemadi. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. §REF§  In terms of central government the Parthian Arsacids retained the Achaemenid model (as had the Seleucids) which had departments called diwans \"responsible for record-keeping, communication, budgeting, and taxation.\" The departments were run by individuals called dibirs who were themselves responsible to a first-minister. §REF§ Khodadad Rezakhani. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/</a> §REF§ ",
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                "home_nga": {
                    "id": 9,
                    "name": "Susiana",
                    "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia",
                    "longitude": "48.235564000000",
                    "latitude": "32.382851000000",
                    "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)",
                    "nga_code": "IR",
                    "fao_country": "Iran",
                    "world_region": "Southwest Asia"
                },
                "home_seshat_region": {
                    "id": 45,
                    "name": "Iran",
                    "subregions_list": "Iran",
                    "mac_region": {
                        "id": 11,
                        "name": "Southwest Asia"
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        {
            "id": 273,
            "year_from": -200,
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            "description": "Evidence of irrigation and the flourishing trade network seems to indicate a growth of population in the region controlled by the Indo-Greek Kingdom. However, this is largely speculative based on the current archaeological record. The description of Bactria as 'the land of a thousand cities' does seem to imply a relatively dense population. So far, only two of these have seen extensive excavation.§REF§Fino, Elisabetta Valtz, ed. Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road. Buy this book, 2012.§REF§ There is also evidence that Bactria was fertile and extensively irrigated. §REF§Gardin, J.C, The Development of Eastern Bactria in Pre-Classical Times, Purattava (10): 8-13 (1981)§REF§<br>McEvedy and Jones §REF§(McEvedy and Jones 1978, 155+163)§REF§<br>200 BCE: Russian Turkestan: 1,000,000; Afghanistan 1,750,000. Highest density of population likely to be in the Greco-Bactrian region which contained cities.<br>126 BCE the Chinese chronicler Zhang Qian estimated \"some 1,000,000 or more persons.\"§REF§(www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh02-06enl.html)§REF§",
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            "name": "polity_population",
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            "polity": {
                "id": 350,
                "name": "AfGrBct",
                "start_year": -256,
                "end_year": -125,
                "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom",
                "new_name": "af_greco_bactrian_k",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom was a hereditary monarchy founded in the mid-3rd century BCE, probably by the Seleucid satrap Diodotus I,§REF§(Holt 1999, 51, 63) Holt, Frank Lee. 1999. Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/X4JIUZNR\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/X4JIUZNR</a> §REF§ as a successor kingdom of the Seleucid Empire. It came to an end when it was conquered by nomadic peoples who were being pushed further west by the rising power of a unified Chinese empire.§REF§(Bernard 2012, 42-52) Bernard, Paul. 2012. “Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.” In Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations along the Silk Road, edited by Joan Aruz and Elisabetta Valtz Fino, 42-53. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/K38GFI79\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/K38GFI79</a> §REF§<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Under the Graeco-Bactrian rulers, new cities based on the Greek street plan, such as Sirkap, sprang up in Central Asia.§REF§(Higham 2004, 344) Higham, Charles. 2004. Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. New York: Facts On File. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBEBEPPM\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBEBEPPM</a> §REF§ The Bactrian Greek city of Ai Khanoum, one of the best preserved, had an impressive administrative centre, gymnasium and theatre as well as Greek statuary.§REF§(Docherty 2008, 64-65) Docherty, Paddy. 2008. The Khyber Pass: A History of Empire and Invasion. New York: Union Square Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IW3IVGT7\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IW3IVGT7</a> §REF§ The administrative centre at Ai Khanoum was Persian in style so was likely organized into different departments and scribes.§REF§(Mori 2015, 93) Mori, Anatole. 2015. “Literature in the Hellenistic World.” In A Companion to Greek Literature, edited by Martin Hose and David Schenker, 89-111. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IBRAVRD7\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IBRAVRD7</a> §REF§<br>The regions of Bactria were ruled by officials from their administrative centres, such as Ai Khanoum, which may have had a population of between 25,000 and 50,000 people. But if these regional officials were initially directly loyal to the central monarchy at the capital Bactra, by 126 BCE the Chinese chronicler Zhang Qian could claim that Bactria had 'no great ruler but only a number of petty chiefs ruling the various cities'.§REF§(Mairs 2014, 154) Mairs, Rachel. 2014. The Hellenistic Far East: Archaeology, Language, and Identity in Greek Central Asia. Oakland, CA: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ENDA26P\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ENDA26P</a> §REF§<br>The Greco-Bactrian army was based on the same model as that of the Macedonian-Seleucids, with innovations in tactics based on exposure to nomadic horsemen.§REF§(Holt 1999, 118) Holt, Frank Lee. 1999. Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/X4JIUZNR\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/X4JIUZNR</a> §REF§ The Bactrian Greeks were equipped in the Macedonian style adopted by their Seleucid forebears. They wore a muscled breastplate made of metal scales and their legs were protected by strips of leather.§REF§(Docherty 2008, 64-66) Docherty, Paddy. 2008. The Khyber Pass: A History of Empire and Invasion. New York: Union Square Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IW3IVGT7\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IW3IVGT7</a> §REF§<br>The flowering of Greek culture in Central Asia in this period produced distinctly Hellenistic artwork, statuary and coinage and had a profound influence on the culture of central Asia for centuries to come.§REF§(Holt 1999, 136) Holt, Frank Lee. 1999. Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/X4JIUZNR\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/X4JIUZNR</a> §REF§§REF§(Bernard 1994) Bernard, P. 1994. “The Greek Kingdoms of Central Asia.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B.C. to A.D. 250, edited by János Harmatta, B. N. Puri, and G. F. Etemadi, 96-126. Paris: UNESCO. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HIB5JTCU\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HIB5JTCU</a> §REF§",
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        {
            "id": 300,
            "year_from": -200,
            "year_to": 9,
            "description": " \"Early on in the days of the Han Empire (206 BC - 220 AD) the population passed the 50m mark. But thereafter it was to stay in the band 45-60m for a thousand years.§REF§(McEvedy and Jones 1979)§REF§<br>Government census. 57,600,000 in 2 CE. 12 million family households. §REF§(Keay 2009, 144)§REF§<br>Agricultural intensification: population growth occurred in Former Han despite no increase in available arable land. Population migration to south throughout period.§REF§(Roberts 2003, 43-44)§REF§<br>60,000,000 at zenith.§REF§(Zhao 2015, 56) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.§REF§",
            "note": null,
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            "polity": {
                "id": 251,
                "name": "CnWHan*",
                "start_year": -202,
                "end_year": 9,
                "long_name": "Western Han Empire",
                "new_name": "cn_western_han_dyn",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Western Han dynasty (also known as the Former Han) was the first lasting imperial dynasty in China.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a>  §REF§ In 206 BCE, the first imperial Han emperor Liu Bang defeated the Qin and capture the capital of Xianyang, but was forced to yield to the rival Western Chu state.§REF§ (San 2014, 69) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ A period of conflict between Chu and Han lasted until 202 BCE, when Liu Bang defeated the Western Chu and declared himself emperor of the Han dynasty. (San 68) He was the first commoner to become the emperor of China.§REF§ (San 2014, 69) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§<br>The seventh emperor of Han, Emperor Wu (r. 141-87 BCE), expanded the Western Han territory to modern Xinjiang and south China.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a>  §REF§ During Wu Di’s rule Western Han dynasty encompassed modern China, northern Vietnam, Inner Mongolia, southern Manchuria, and parts of modern Korea.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.<a href=\"http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/\">http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/</a>  Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW</a>  §REF§<br>The Western Han dynasty is known for its economic, technological, and artistic innovations. The opening of the Silk Road in 130 BCE linked China to Central Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Middle East.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.<a href=\"http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/\">http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/</a>  Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW</a>  §REF§ The state controlled the production of salt, iron, and coins, and developed waterways and irrigation.§REF§(Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/</a> §REF§ The use of the iron plough and other iron agricultural tools became widespread.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/</a> §REF§ Han artisans developed new techniques for metalwork, spinning, weaving, wood carving and pottery.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/</a> §REF§<br>The Western Han were overthrown by Wang Mang, who ruled as the emperor of the Xin dynasty from 9-23 CE.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 34) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>  §REF§<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Western Han dynasty was marked by a strong imperial government and a combination of centrally-controlled commandaries and semi-autonomous kingdoms.§REF§ (San 2014, 73) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ The central government promoted Confucianism as a state doctrine.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a>  §REF§ The Western Han gradually reduced the size of the semi-autonomous kingdoms within the empire. Many kings and marquises were eventually replaced by members of the imperial clan.§REF§ (San 2014, 73) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ Commanderies were ruled a civil governor and military governor and were divided into counties or districts.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a>  §REF§<br>An imperial academy was established in 124 BCE. Qualification through Confucian examinations slowly replaced hereditary assignment of government positions.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 34) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>  §REF§ Although exams were used only sporadically due to the significantly aristocratic society of this period. §REF§(Mostern, Ruth. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)§REF§<br><br/>The population of the Western Han empire was 57.6 million in 2 CE§REF§ (Keay 2009, 144) Keay, J. 2009. China, A History, HarperPress, London. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ACHZRD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ACHZRD</a>  §REF§, and 60 million at its peak.§REF§ (Zhao 2015, 56) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QBD9EVZQ\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QBD9EVZQ</a>  §REF§ The Western Han capital of Chang’an was home to between 250,000 and 400,000 people. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn spreadsheet)§REF§§REF§(Loewe 1986 a ) Loewe, M. 1986a. \"The Former Han,\" in Twitchett and Loewe (eds.) The Cambridge History of China. Vol. I: The Qi'in and Han Empires, 221 BC - 220 AD. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7NCDWJJ2\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7NCDWJJ2</a>  §REF§",
                "shapefile_name": null,
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                "home_nga": {
                    "id": 20,
                    "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley",
                    "subregion": "North China",
                    "longitude": "112.517587000000",
                    "latitude": "34.701825000000",
                    "capital_city": "Luoyang",
                    "nga_code": "CN",
                    "fao_country": "China",
                    "world_region": "East Asia"
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                    "id": 58,
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        {
            "id": 586,
            "year_from": -150,
            "year_to": -32,
            "description": "{[3,000,000-5,000,000]; 2,500,000}: 100 BCE<br>TC: figures below refer to Egypt specfically:<br>3,000,000-5,000,000 Egypt 100 BCE.<br>Fischer-Bovet book is out in 2014<br>Clarysse and Thompson §REF§W. Clarysse and D. Thompson, Counting the People in Hellenistic Egypt. Cambridge, 2006§REF§ offer an estimate (for Egypt) of around 2.8 mln which is based upon census figures.<br>F. Hassan provides an estimate for Egypt which is also less than 3 mln. W. Scheidel prefers a number closer to 5 mln. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011 gives 3.5 mln. ca. BCE 100. §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/180468/ancient-Egypt/22341/The-Ptolemaic-dynasty?anchor=ref936466\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/180468/ancient-Egypt/22341/The-Ptolemaic-dynasty?anchor=ref936466</a>§REF§<br>C. Fischer-Bovet, \"Counting the Greeks in Egypt. Immigration in the first century of Ptolemaic rule,\" in Demography in the Graeco-Roman World, ed. C. Holleran and A. Pudsey. Cambridge, 2011, pp. 135-54 reviews earlier estimations, and suggests a population in the Third century BC of 4 mln, with Greeks representing ca. 5% of the total.<br>Korotaev and Khaltourina's estimated population dynamics of Egypt 300-1900 CE. §REF§(Korotaev and  Khaltourina 2006, 38)§REF§Korotaev and Khaltourina's data (Egypt only)300 BCE: 3,000,000200 BCE: 4,000,000100 BCE: 2,500,0001 CE: 3,500,000<br>",
            "note": null,
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            "created_date": null,
            "modified_date": "2023-07-19T12:11:27.032799Z",
            "tag": "TRS",
            "is_disputed": true,
            "is_uncertain": false,
            "expert_reviewed": true,
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            "name": "polity_population",
            "polity_population_from": 2500000,
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            "polity": {
                "id": 207,
                "name": "EgPtol2",
                "start_year": -217,
                "end_year": -30,
                "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II",
                "new_name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Ptolemaic Kingdom (or Empire) was one of the successor states to the Macedonian Empire created by the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BCE. When Alexander died in Babylon in 323, Ptolemy, as one of his most favoured generals and bodyguards, was appointed satrap (governor) of Egypt, Libya and parts of Arabia. §REF§ (Hӧlbl 2001, 12, 14) Günther Hӧlbl. 2001. <i>A History of the Ptolemaic Empire</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The next few decades after 323 were characterized by incessant warfare between those who wished to maintain the unity of the Macedonian Empire, nominally still intact, §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  and those who aspired to rule their own kingdoms independently. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Ptolemy was firmly on the separatist side, and in 305 BCE he successfully declared himself king of Egypt. In doing so, he became Ptolemy I Soter ('the saviour') §REF§ (Thompson 2005, 113) Dorothy J. Thompson. 2005. 'The Ptolemies and Egypt', in <i>A Companion to the Hellenistic World</i>, edited by Andrew Erskine, 105-20. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ , founder of a powerful dynasty (sometimes known as the Lagides, after his father Lagos) §REF§ (Myśliwiec 2000, 179) Karol Myśliwiec. 2000. <i>The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E.</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  that was to rule Egypt for almost three centuries.<br>Ptolemy I and his successors had expansionist ambitions, seeking to carve out more and more territory for their new kingdom, often at the expense of the other kingdoms that had splintered from Alexander's empire, especially the Seleucid Kingdom of the Middle East. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  At its greatest extent, the Ptolemaic Empire reached as far south as Lower Nubia (southern Egypt), west to Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya), east to Cyprus, Syria, Phoenicia and Asia Minor (Turkey), and north into the Aegean. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169-71) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  In the words of one researcher, Egypt became for the first time a true 'Mediterranean power' under its new Macedonian rulers. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The peak of the Ptolemaic period is generally considered to correspond to the reigns of the first three Ptolemies in the 3rd century BCE. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 11) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  We divide the kingdom into two polities: the first begins with Ptolemy I's accession in 305 and ends with the Battle of Raphia in 217. In this battle, Ptolemy IV defeated the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who had invaded Ptolemaic-controlled lands in Palestine. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 394) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The late 3rd and early 2nd centuries saw conflict within the ruling family and revolts by the Egyptian population, representing an 'age of crisis' between two periods of relative stability. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 165-66) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Our second polity runs from 217 up to the famous suicide of Cleopatra VII, the last ruler in the Ptolemaic line, and the Roman annexation of Egypt in 30 BCE. §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  §REF§ (Newman 2015) Frances Stickney Newman. 2015. 'Cleopatra VII', in <i>Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia</i>. Ipswich, MA: Salem Press. Accessed 22 February 2017. §REF§  Overall, the Ptolemies were a successful dynasty: in concert with their expansionist policies, they managed to transform Egypt ‒ and the new city of Alexandria in particular ‒ into the cultural and economic centre of the Hellenistic world. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 173-75) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The Ptolemies were the longest-lived foreign dynasty ever to rule Egypt. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 159) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  They presided over a 'double society', portraying themselves as Graeco-Macedonian kings to the many resident Greeks and divine pharaohs to the 'native' Egyptian population. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 33, 37) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Greeks and Egyptians were subject to different judicial systems and Greeks tended to dominate the highest echelons of society. §REF§ (Manning 2003, 53, 131) J. G. Manning. 2003. <i>Land and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Structure of Land Tenure</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 409) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Alexandria, built as an ideal Greek-style Hellenistic city with its magnificent library, stadium, theatre, gymnasium and lighthouse, was always set apart from the rest of the country. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 174) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 400-01) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Over time, however, and especially from 200 BCE onwards, the boundaries between 'Greek' and 'Egyptian' became blurred. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171-73) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The chief aim of government was to draw as much revenue ‒ in money and in wheat ‒ as possible from the population, and for this reason the burden of taxation was heavy. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 78) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  The Ptolemies left many Pharaonic Egyptian institutions intact, such as the temple hierarchy with its priests and scribes. However, they used state functionaries and tax farmers to divert more and more wealth from temples, agricultural estates, especially those of granted to soldiers (known as cleruchs), and ordinary peasant farmers to the royal coffers. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 404-05) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Egypt under the Ptolemies also became more outward-looking, extending commercial and political power into the Levant, the Black Sea and the shores of the Mediterranean as far west as Sicily. §REF§ (Thompson and Buraselis 2013, 2-4) Dorothy J. Thompson and Kostas Buraselis. 'Introduction', in <i>The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power</i>, edited by Kostas Buraselis, Mary Stefanou and Dorothy J. Thompson, 1-18. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The population of Egypt during the Ptolemaic period has been estimated at around 4 million people in the 3rd century BCE, of which between 5 and 10 percent were Greeks. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2011, 135-37) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2011. 'Counting the Greeks in Egypt: Immigration in the First Century of Ptolemaic Rule', in <i>Demography in the Graeco-Roman World</i>, edited by C. Holleran and A. Pudsey, 135-54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The total population of the entire Ptolemaic Empire may have reached 7 million. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 149) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",
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            "year_from": -150,
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            "description": "{[3,000,000-5,000,000]; 2,500,000}: 100 BCE<br>TC: figures below refer to Egypt specfically:<br>3,000,000-5,000,000 Egypt 100 BCE.<br>Fischer-Bovet book is out in 2014<br>Clarysse and Thompson §REF§W. Clarysse and D. Thompson, Counting the People in Hellenistic Egypt. Cambridge, 2006§REF§ offer an estimate (for Egypt) of around 2.8 mln which is based upon census figures.<br>F. Hassan provides an estimate for Egypt which is also less than 3 mln. W. Scheidel prefers a number closer to 5 mln. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2011 gives 3.5 mln. ca. BCE 100. §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/180468/ancient-Egypt/22341/The-Ptolemaic-dynasty?anchor=ref936466\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/180468/ancient-Egypt/22341/The-Ptolemaic-dynasty?anchor=ref936466</a>§REF§<br>C. Fischer-Bovet, \"Counting the Greeks in Egypt. Immigration in the first century of Ptolemaic rule,\" in Demography in the Graeco-Roman World, ed. C. Holleran and A. Pudsey. Cambridge, 2011, pp. 135-54 reviews earlier estimations, and suggests a population in the Third century BC of 4 mln, with Greeks representing ca. 5% of the total.<br>Korotaev and Khaltourina's estimated population dynamics of Egypt 300-1900 CE. §REF§(Korotaev and  Khaltourina 2006, 38)§REF§Korotaev and Khaltourina's data (Egypt only)300 BCE: 3,000,000200 BCE: 4,000,000100 BCE: 2,500,0001 CE: 3,500,000<br>",
            "note": null,
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            "name": "polity_population",
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            "polity": {
                "id": 207,
                "name": "EgPtol2",
                "start_year": -217,
                "end_year": -30,
                "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II",
                "new_name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Ptolemaic Kingdom (or Empire) was one of the successor states to the Macedonian Empire created by the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BCE. When Alexander died in Babylon in 323, Ptolemy, as one of his most favoured generals and bodyguards, was appointed satrap (governor) of Egypt, Libya and parts of Arabia. §REF§ (Hӧlbl 2001, 12, 14) Günther Hӧlbl. 2001. <i>A History of the Ptolemaic Empire</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§  §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The next few decades after 323 were characterized by incessant warfare between those who wished to maintain the unity of the Macedonian Empire, nominally still intact, §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  and those who aspired to rule their own kingdoms independently. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Ptolemy was firmly on the separatist side, and in 305 BCE he successfully declared himself king of Egypt. In doing so, he became Ptolemy I Soter ('the saviour') §REF§ (Thompson 2005, 113) Dorothy J. Thompson. 2005. 'The Ptolemies and Egypt', in <i>A Companion to the Hellenistic World</i>, edited by Andrew Erskine, 105-20. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ , founder of a powerful dynasty (sometimes known as the Lagides, after his father Lagos) §REF§ (Myśliwiec 2000, 179) Karol Myśliwiec. 2000. <i>The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E.</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  that was to rule Egypt for almost three centuries.<br>Ptolemy I and his successors had expansionist ambitions, seeking to carve out more and more territory for their new kingdom, often at the expense of the other kingdoms that had splintered from Alexander's empire, especially the Seleucid Kingdom of the Middle East. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  At its greatest extent, the Ptolemaic Empire reached as far south as Lower Nubia (southern Egypt), west to Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya), east to Cyprus, Syria, Phoenicia and Asia Minor (Turkey), and north into the Aegean. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169-71) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  In the words of one researcher, Egypt became for the first time a true 'Mediterranean power' under its new Macedonian rulers. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The peak of the Ptolemaic period is generally considered to correspond to the reigns of the first three Ptolemies in the 3rd century BCE. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 11) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  We divide the kingdom into two polities: the first begins with Ptolemy I's accession in 305 and ends with the Battle of Raphia in 217. In this battle, Ptolemy IV defeated the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who had invaded Ptolemaic-controlled lands in Palestine. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 394) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  The late 3rd and early 2nd centuries saw conflict within the ruling family and revolts by the Egyptian population, representing an 'age of crisis' between two periods of relative stability. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 165-66) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Our second polity runs from 217 up to the famous suicide of Cleopatra VII, the last ruler in the Ptolemaic line, and the Roman annexation of Egypt in 30 BCE. §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  §REF§ (Newman 2015) Frances Stickney Newman. 2015. 'Cleopatra VII', in <i>Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia</i>. Ipswich, MA: Salem Press. Accessed 22 February 2017. §REF§  Overall, the Ptolemies were a successful dynasty: in concert with their expansionist policies, they managed to transform Egypt ‒ and the new city of Alexandria in particular ‒ into the cultural and economic centre of the Hellenistic world. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 173-75) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The Ptolemies were the longest-lived foreign dynasty ever to rule Egypt. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 159) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  They presided over a 'double society', portraying themselves as Graeco-Macedonian kings to the many resident Greeks and divine pharaohs to the 'native' Egyptian population. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 33, 37) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  Greeks and Egyptians were subject to different judicial systems and Greeks tended to dominate the highest echelons of society. §REF§ (Manning 2003, 53, 131) J. G. Manning. 2003. <i>Land and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Structure of Land Tenure</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 409) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Alexandria, built as an ideal Greek-style Hellenistic city with its magnificent library, stadium, theatre, gymnasium and lighthouse, was always set apart from the rest of the country. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 174) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§  §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 400-01) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Over time, however, and especially from 200 BCE onwards, the boundaries between 'Greek' and 'Egyptian' became blurred. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171-73) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The chief aim of government was to draw as much revenue ‒ in money and in wheat ‒ as possible from the population, and for this reason the burden of taxation was heavy. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 78) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§  The Ptolemies left many Pharaonic Egyptian institutions intact, such as the temple hierarchy with its priests and scribes. However, they used state functionaries and tax farmers to divert more and more wealth from temples, agricultural estates, especially those of granted to soldiers (known as cleruchs), and ordinary peasant farmers to the royal coffers. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 404-05) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§  Egypt under the Ptolemies also became more outward-looking, extending commercial and political power into the Levant, the Black Sea and the shores of the Mediterranean as far west as Sicily. §REF§ (Thompson and Buraselis 2013, 2-4) Dorothy J. Thompson and Kostas Buraselis. 'Introduction', in <i>The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power</i>, edited by Kostas Buraselis, Mary Stefanou and Dorothy J. Thompson, 1-18. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The population of Egypt during the Ptolemaic period has been estimated at around 4 million people in the 3rd century BCE, of which between 5 and 10 percent were Greeks. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2011, 135-37) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2011. 'Counting the Greeks in Egypt: Immigration in the First Century of Ptolemaic Rule', in <i>Demography in the Graeco-Roman World</i>, edited by C. Holleran and A. Pudsey, 135-54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§  The total population of the entire Ptolemaic Empire may have reached 7 million. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 149) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",
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            "description": " Priesler-Keller writes that due to a lack of empire-wide census, a population estimate of 5-7.5million is plausible for the Parthian Empire. §REF§(Priesler-Keller, Johannes. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email.§REF§<br>[50,000-100,000]: 200 BCE; 5,450,000: 100 BCE; {7,500,000; 15,000,000; 25,000,000}: 1 CE; 4,750,000: 100 CE; 5,000,000: 200 CE<br>Estimates derived from McEvedy and Jones§REF§(McEvedy and Jones 1978) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd.§REF§<br>200 BCE - occupied the very south-west corner of Central Asia. McEvedy and Jones have 1,000,000 for the whole region at this time. Considering lack of major population center in this region, at most 10% of this total.<br>100 BCE - 200,000 in Central Asia, 1,250,000 in Iraq, 4,000,000 in Iran<br>1 CE - 500,000 in Central Asia, 2,000,000 in Afghanistan, 4,000,000 in Iran, 1,000,000 in Iraq, ? in Pakistan (mountains region).<br>100 CE - 3,750,000 in Iran, 1,000,000 in Iraq<br>200 CE - 4,000,000 in Iran, 1,000,000 in Iraq<br>Maximum extent estimates<br>10-20 million - Durand (1977)§REF§(Korotaev 2006, 12) Korotaev, A. V. 2012. Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends in Africa. Editorial URSS.§REF§<br>25 million - Truxillo (2008)§REF§(Truxillo 2008, 71) Truxillo, Charles A. 2008. Periods of World History: A Latin American Perspective. Jain Publishing Company.§REF§",
            "note": null,
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            "name": "polity_population",
            "polity_population_from": 5450000,
            "polity_population_to": 5450000,
            "polity": {
                "id": 125,
                "name": "IrPart1",
                "start_year": -247,
                "end_year": 40,
                "long_name": "Parthian Empire I",
                "new_name": "ir_parthian_emp_1",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The first ruler of the Parthian dynasty was Arsaces who lived at about 240 BCE §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 16) JAcob Neusner. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf &amp; Stock. Eugene. §REF§  but the founder of the Parthian Empire (171 BCE - 40 CE period) was Mithridates I, who initiated the Parthian conquest of Persia and Babylonia from the Seleucids. §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 16) Jacob Neusner. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf &amp; Stock. Eugene. §REF§  The Parthians were essentially \"a military aristocracy\" §REF§ (Dabrowa 2012, 180) Edward Dabrowa. The Arcasid Empire. in Daryaee, Touraj ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. §REF§  that ruled the many different peoples (e.g. Persians, Greeks, Jews, Babylonians) who lived in Persia and Babylonia.<br>Parchments and ostra found at Dura-Europas show the Parthians had \"an extensive and developed bureaucracy\". §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) G A Koshelenko. V N Pilipko. in Ahmad Hasan Dani. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. §REF§  The Parthians, who were originally a nomadic tribe (the Parni) from northeastern Iran §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) G A Koshelenko. V N Pilipko. in Ahmad Hasan Dani. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. §REF§ , conquered Seleucid territory that already possessed municipal, provincial (satrapal) and central government. The Parthians had some centralized institutions but these were not based at a capital city but \"moved from city to city along with their administration.\" §REF§ Khodadad Rezakhani. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/</a> §REF§ <br>The Parthian nobility was inserted into the regional governance structures they inherited §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 18) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf &amp; Stock. Eugene. §REF§  as satraps appointed by the king, while much of the rest of the territory consisted of directly granted personal fiefs §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 18) Jacob Neusner. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf &amp; Stock. Eugene. §REF§  or vassal kingdoms. §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1994, 141) G A Koshelenko. V N Pilipko. Parthia. in Janos Harmatta. B N Puri. G F Etemadi. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. §REF§  In terms of central government the Parthian Arsacids retained the Achaemenid model (as had the Seleucids) which had departments called diwans \"responsible for record-keeping, communication, budgeting, and taxation.\" The departments were run by individuals called dibirs who were themselves responsible to a first-minister. §REF§ Khodadad Rezakhani. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/</a> §REF§ ",
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            "id": 654,
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            "description": " People.<br>Estimated from §REF§(McEvedy and Jones 1978, 182-185) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London.§REF§<br>",
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            "polity": {
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                "name": "InSataL",
                "start_year": -100,
                "end_year": 203,
                "long_name": "Satavahana Empire",
                "new_name": "in_satavahana_emp",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Satavahanas were the first Deccan-based dynasty to rule over an empire encompassing both southern and northern India, stretching from the Deccan Plateau in the south to Madhya Pradesh in the north, and touching both the western and eastern coasts. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 25-26) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§  According to the most widely accepted hypothesis, based on numismatic, archaeological and textual evidence, this polity existed between the beginning of the 1st century BCE and the end of the 2nd century CE, though many scholars are reluctant to assign absolute dates to specific kings. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in <i>Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History</i>, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Notable rulers include Gautamiputra Satakarani, Vasistiputra, Pulamavi, and Yajnasri. Under their governance, Indian commerce with the Western world intensified and there was a florescence of the arts, particularly in the field of Buddhist iconography. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 25-26) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§  However, records are scanty when it comes to the empire's middle century, which suggests that the Satavahana polity went through two phases of power and prosperity, with an intervening period of regionalization, and perhaps even collapse. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in <i>Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History</i>, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Satavahana polity was ruled by an emperor. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§  He was aided, at court, by a number of officials, including attendants and advisors, the <i>mahasenapati</i> (army commander), the superintendent of stores, the treasurer, officials tasked with drafting and registering his documents, and officials tasked with supervising feudal lords. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§  §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 32-33) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§  The provinces were governed by feudal lords who were related by blood to the royal family, by lords who struck coins in their own name (perhaps indicating some degree of autonomy from the Satavahanas themselves), and by military commanders in charge of outlying centres. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§  The fact that the empire likely suffered some sort of collapse in its middle period suggests that it may have been overly dependent on the abilities of individual rulers rather than a well-designed administrative structure. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in <i>Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History</i>, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.",
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            "description": " People.<br>Estimated from §REF§(McEvedy and Jones 1978, 182-185) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London.§REF§<br>",
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                "general_description": "The Satavahanas were the first Deccan-based dynasty to rule over an empire encompassing both southern and northern India, stretching from the Deccan Plateau in the south to Madhya Pradesh in the north, and touching both the western and eastern coasts. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 25-26) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§  According to the most widely accepted hypothesis, based on numismatic, archaeological and textual evidence, this polity existed between the beginning of the 1st century BCE and the end of the 2nd century CE, though many scholars are reluctant to assign absolute dates to specific kings. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in <i>Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History</i>, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Notable rulers include Gautamiputra Satakarani, Vasistiputra, Pulamavi, and Yajnasri. Under their governance, Indian commerce with the Western world intensified and there was a florescence of the arts, particularly in the field of Buddhist iconography. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 25-26) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§  However, records are scanty when it comes to the empire's middle century, which suggests that the Satavahana polity went through two phases of power and prosperity, with an intervening period of regionalization, and perhaps even collapse. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in <i>Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History</i>, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Satavahana polity was ruled by an emperor. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§  He was aided, at court, by a number of officials, including attendants and advisors, the <i>mahasenapati</i> (army commander), the superintendent of stores, the treasurer, officials tasked with drafting and registering his documents, and officials tasked with supervising feudal lords. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§  §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 32-33) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. <i>A History of Karnataka</i>. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§  The provinces were governed by feudal lords who were related by blood to the royal family, by lords who struck coins in their own name (perhaps indicating some degree of autonomy from the Satavahanas themselves), and by military commanders in charge of outlying centres. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§  The fact that the empire likely suffered some sort of collapse in its middle period suggests that it may have been overly dependent on the abilities of individual rulers rather than a well-designed administrative structure. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in <i>Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History</i>, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.",
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            "description": " \"Early on in the days of the Han Empire (206 BC - 220 AD) the population passed the 50m mark. But thereafter it was to stay in the band 45-60m for a thousand years.§REF§(McEvedy and Jones 1979)§REF§<br>Government census. 57,600,000 in 2 CE. 12 million family households. §REF§(Keay 2009, 144)§REF§<br>Agricultural intensification: population growth occurred in Former Han despite no increase in available arable land. Population migration to south throughout period.§REF§(Roberts 2003, 43-44)§REF§<br>60,000,000 at zenith.§REF§(Zhao 2015, 56) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press.§REF§",
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            "polity": {
                "id": 251,
                "name": "CnWHan*",
                "start_year": -202,
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                "long_name": "Western Han Empire",
                "new_name": "cn_western_han_dyn",
                "polity_tag": "LEGACY",
                "general_description": "The Western Han dynasty (also known as the Former Han) was the first lasting imperial dynasty in China.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a>  §REF§ In 206 BCE, the first imperial Han emperor Liu Bang defeated the Qin and capture the capital of Xianyang, but was forced to yield to the rival Western Chu state.§REF§ (San 2014, 69) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ A period of conflict between Chu and Han lasted until 202 BCE, when Liu Bang defeated the Western Chu and declared himself emperor of the Han dynasty. (San 68) He was the first commoner to become the emperor of China.§REF§ (San 2014, 69) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§<br>The seventh emperor of Han, Emperor Wu (r. 141-87 BCE), expanded the Western Han territory to modern Xinjiang and south China.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a>  §REF§ During Wu Di’s rule Western Han dynasty encompassed modern China, northern Vietnam, Inner Mongolia, southern Manchuria, and parts of modern Korea.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.<a href=\"http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/\">http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/</a>  Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW</a>  §REF§<br>The Western Han dynasty is known for its economic, technological, and artistic innovations. The opening of the Silk Road in 130 BCE linked China to Central Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Middle East.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.<a href=\"http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/\">http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/</a>  Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW</a>  §REF§ The state controlled the production of salt, iron, and coins, and developed waterways and irrigation.§REF§(Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/</a> §REF§ The use of the iron plough and other iron agricultural tools became widespread.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/</a> §REF§ Han artisans developed new techniques for metalwork, spinning, weaving, wood carving and pottery.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/</a> §REF§<br>The Western Han were overthrown by Wang Mang, who ruled as the emperor of the Xin dynasty from 9-23 CE.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 34) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>  §REF§<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Western Han dynasty was marked by a strong imperial government and a combination of centrally-controlled commandaries and semi-autonomous kingdoms.§REF§ (San 2014, 73) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ The central government promoted Confucianism as a state doctrine.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a>  §REF§ The Western Han gradually reduced the size of the semi-autonomous kingdoms within the empire. Many kings and marquises were eventually replaced by members of the imperial clan.§REF§ (San 2014, 73) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a>  §REF§ Commanderies were ruled a civil governor and military governor and were divided into counties or districts.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a>  Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a>  §REF§<br>An imperial academy was established in 124 BCE. Qualification through Confucian examinations slowly replaced hereditary assignment of government positions.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 34) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>  §REF§ Although exams were used only sporadically due to the significantly aristocratic society of this period. §REF§(Mostern, Ruth. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)§REF§<br><br/>The population of the Western Han empire was 57.6 million in 2 CE§REF§ (Keay 2009, 144) Keay, J. 2009. China, A History, HarperPress, London. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ACHZRD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ACHZRD</a>  §REF§, and 60 million at its peak.§REF§ (Zhao 2015, 56) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QBD9EVZQ\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QBD9EVZQ</a>  §REF§ The Western Han capital of Chang’an was home to between 250,000 and 400,000 people. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn spreadsheet)§REF§§REF§(Loewe 1986 a ) Loewe, M. 1986a. \"The Former Han,\" in Twitchett and Loewe (eds.) The Cambridge History of China. Vol. I: The Qi'in and Han Empires, 221 BC - 220 AD. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7NCDWJJ2\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7NCDWJJ2</a>  §REF§",
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