Philosophy List
A viewset for viewing and editing Philosophies.
GET /api/sc/philosophies/?ordering=-private_comment
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Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ By bringing previously independent polities under their control, Jayavarman II and his successors expanded their realm across mainland Southeast Asia, including parts of modern-day Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in <i>The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies</i>, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Our Classic Angkor period begins in 1100 CE, when a new dynasty ‒ named after their place of origin, Mahidharapura ‒ came to power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 107-09) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ The reign of Jayavarman VII, beginning in 1181 CE, marks the height of Angkorean power in the region, and we end this period with his death around 1220 CE. §REF§ (Tully 2005, 27) John Tully. 2005. <i>A Short History of Cambodia: From Empire to Survival</i>. Singapore: Allen & Unwin. §REF§ §REF§ (Vickery 1986, 103) Michael Vickery. 1986. 'Some Remarks on Early State Formation in Cambodia', in <i>Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries</i>, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 95-115. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Numerous small kingdoms formed in the lower Mekong Basin in the mid-1st millennium CE, but until the conquests of Jayavarman II, most failed to outlive their founders. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Jayavarman II managed to unify previously warring local lords under his aegis, turning independent polities into provinces and laying the foundations for over six centuries of Khmer rule centred on the Siem Reap plain. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Like many polities in Southeast Asia at the turn of the 1st millennium CE, the new kingdom, with its growing urban centre on the north shore of the Tonlé Sap, borrowed from Indian religious practices, concepts of divine kingship, language, writing and iconography in order to legitimize royal power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 8) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Kulke 1986, 14-15) Hermann Kulke. 1986. 'The Early and the Imperial Kingdom in Southeast Asian History', in <i>Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries</i>, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 1-22. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§ Its kings patronized both Hindu and Buddhist institutions, building monasteries and sanctuaries dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and the Buddha that doubled as outposts of royal power throughout the realm. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 160) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lieberman 2003, 33) Victor Lieberman. 2003. <i>Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800‒1830, Vol. 1: Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</i> §REF§ The Early Angkor <i>devaraja</i> (god-king) cult and the veneration of Hindu gods retained their importance into the Classic Angkor period: it was Suryavarman II (r. 1113‒1150 CE) who sponsored the construction of Angkor Wat, dedicated to Vishnu and still one of the largest single religious structures in the world. §REF§ (Winter 2007, 9) Tim Winter. 2007. <i>Post-Conflict Heritage, Postcolonial Tourism: Culture, Politics and Development at Angkor</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ However, Jayavarman VII's religious policies differed from those of his predecessors. Providing support for the spread of Buddhism throughout the Khmer realm and portraying himself as a compassionate ruler, he also mobilized labour to build 102 'hospitals', 121 rest houses, and to improve the road network. §REF§ (Hall 2011, 197) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ <br>The riches of Angkor ultimately flowed from wet-rice agriculture, §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and an institutionalized hierarchy of officials developed to funnel surplus rice produced in villages, as well as other goods like honey, spices, cloth and gold, to the royal centre. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Angkor kings also used corvée labour to build temples, irrigation infrastructure and other public works. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Higham 2014, 368-70) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ <br>The Khmer Empire is famous for its sprawling but low-density urban sites. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in <i>The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies</i>, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It has been claimed that Angkor itself was the 'largest settlement complex of the preindustrial world': §REF§ (Evans et al. 2013, 12595) Damian H. Evans, Roland J. Fletcher, Christophe Pottier, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, Dominique Soutif, Boun Suy Tan, Sokrithy Im, Darith Ea, Tina Tin, Samnang Kim, Christopher Cromarty, Stéphane De Greef, Kasper Hanus, Pierre Bâty, Robert Kuszinger, Ichita Shimoda, and Glenn Boornazian. 2013. 'Uncovering Archaeological Landscapes at Angkor Using Lidar'. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> 110 (31): 12595-600. §REF§ at its peak in the 12th century it covered 1000 square kilometres and may have housed over 750,000 people. §REF§ (Penny et al. 2014, 1) Dan Penny, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, David Tang, and Stéphane De Greef. 2014. 'The Environmental Impact of Cambodia's Ancient City of Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen)'. <i>PLoS ONE</i> 9 (1): e84252. §REF§ However, the total population of the empire in this period is still unclear.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 191, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " 'During the first five hundred years or so of the current era, India provided Cambodia with a writing system, a pantheon, meters for poetry, a language (Sanskrit) to write it in, a vocabulary of social hierarchies (not the same as a caste system), Buddhism, the idea of universal kingship, and new ways a looking at politics, sociology, architecture, iconography, astronomy, and aesthetics.'§REF§(Chandler 2008, p. 17)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "philosophy", "philosophy": "present", "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "KhAngkE", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100, "long_name": "Early Angkor", "new_name": "kh_angkor_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Khmer Empire was established in 802 CE, when a ruler known as Jayavarman II had himself proclaimed 'universal monarch' in a ceremony performed by Sanskrit-speaking priests on a mountain close to the Tonlé Sap lake. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ By bringing previously independent polities under their control, Jayavarman II and his successors expanded their realm across mainland Southeast Asia, including parts of modern-day Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in <i>The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies</i>, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Our Early Angkor period runs from 802 to 1100 CE, after which a new dynasty ‒ named after their place of origin, Mahidharapura ‒ came to power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 107-09) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Numerous small kingdoms formed in the lower Mekong Basin in the mid-1st millennium CE, but until the conquests of Jayavarman II, most failed to outlive their founders. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Jayavarman II managed to unify previously warring local lords under his aegis, turning independent polities into provinces and laying the foundations for over six centuries of Khmer rule centred on the Siem Reap plain. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Like many polities in Southeast Asia at the turn of the 1st millennium CE, the new kingdom, with its growing urban centre on the north shore of the Tonlé Sap, borrowed from Indian religious practices, concepts of divine kingship, language, writing and iconography in order to legitimize royal power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 8) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Kulke 1986, 14-15) Hermann Kulke. 1986. 'The Early and the Imperial Kingdom in Southeast Asian History', in <i>Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries</i>, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 1-22. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§ Its kings patronized both Hindu and Buddhist institutions, building monasteries and sanctuaries dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and the Buddha that doubled as outposts of royal power throughout the realm. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 160) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lieberman 2003, 33) Victor Lieberman. 2003. <i>Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800‒1830, Vol. 1: Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</i> §REF§ However, in this early period, it was the Hindu concepts that were most dominant: the ruler was exalted as a <i>devaraja</i> (god-king) and symbolically linked to Shiva. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 15) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100‒1500</i>. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ Temples built in the kingdom before 1100 CE include Preah Ko, Bakheng, Pre Rup and Baphuon. §REF§ (Higham 2001, xiv) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>The riches of Angkor ultimately flowed from wet-rice agriculture, §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and an institutionalized hierarchy of officials developed to funnel surplus rice produced in villages, as well as other goods like honey, spices, cloth and gold, to the royal centre. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Angkor kings also used corvée labour to build temples, irrigation infrastructure and other public works. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Higham 2014, 368-70) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ <br>The Khmer Empire is famous for its sprawling but low-density urban sites. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in <i>The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies</i>, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It has been claimed that Angkor itself was the 'largest settlement complex of the preindustrial world': §REF§ (Evans et al. 2013, 12595) Damian H. Evans, Roland J. Fletcher, Christophe Pottier, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, Dominique Soutif, Boun Suy Tan, Sokrithy Im, Darith Ea, Tina Tin, Samnang Kim, Christopher Cromarty, Stéphane De Greef, Kasper Hanus, Pierre Bâty, Robert Kuszinger, Ichita Shimoda, and Glenn Boornazian. 2013. 'Uncovering Archaeological Landscapes at Angkor Using Lidar'. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> 110 (31): 12595-600. §REF§ at its peak in the 12th century (after this period) it covered 1000 square kilometres and may have housed over 750,000 people. §REF§ (Penny et al. 2014, 1) Dan Penny, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, David Tang, and Stéphane De Greef. 2014. 'The Environmental Impact of Cambodia's Ancient City of Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen)'. <i>PLoS ONE</i> 9 (1): e84252. §REF§ However, the total population of the empire in this period is still unclear.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 193, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " 'During the first five hundred years or so of the current era, India provided Cambodia with a writing system, a pantheon, meters for poetry, a language (Sanskrit) to write it in, a vocabulary of social hierarchies (not the same as a caste system), Buddhism, the idea of universal kingship, and new ways a looking at politics, sociology, architecture, iconography, astronomy, and aesthetics.'§REF§(Chandler 2008, p. 17)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "philosophy", "philosophy": "present", "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "KhCambd", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594, "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "new_name": "kh_khmer_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "This polity covers the post-Angkor period of Cambodia's history from the early 15th to the end of the 16th century CE. In 1432, the magnificent city of Angkor was sacked by the forces of King Trailok ‒ of the increasingly powerful Thai Kingdom of Ayutthaya ‒ who carried off the Khmer royal regalia as a symbol of their victory. §REF§ (Stark 2006, 146, 164) Miriam T. Stark. 2006. 'From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 144-67. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Hall 2011, 233) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ A Khmer royal presence continued at Angkor in reduced form until around 1504, when the rulers retreated to a site near Phnom Penh on the Mekong River, southeast of Tonlé Sap Lake. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 402-59) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, Thai strength in the region continued to grow at the expense of the Khmer court, and in 1594 the then-capital Lovek was also attacked by the Thais, forcing the Cambodian king to flee to Laos. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 210) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ <br>Due to the Angkor kings' waning fortunes and endemic warfare with Ayutthaya, §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 421) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ it is difficult to identify the 'peak' of this polity. Indeed, the post-Angkor period is sometimes referred to somewhat dismissively as the 'Middle Period' of Cambodian history, §REF§ (Thompson 1997, 22) Ashley Thompson. 1997. 'Changing Perspectives: Cambodia after Angkor', in <i>Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory</i>, edited by Helen I. Jessop and Thierry Zephir, 22-32. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art. §REF§ but it should be noted that this term tends to also encompass the span of time between 1594 and the establishment of the French Protectorate in 1863. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 195) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Although centralized Khmer power was much weaker than in former centuries, and very few inscriptions survive to throw light on political organization, §REF§ (Thompson 1997, 22-23) Ashley Thompson. 1997. 'Changing Perspectives: Cambodia after Angkor', in <i>Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory</i>, edited by Helen I. Jessop and Thierry Zephir, 22-32. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art. §REF§ Khmer royals did still rise up periodically to assert their authority. For instance, historical accounts indicate that a king called Ang Chan reconquered Angkor in the 16th century and built a golden palace. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Meanwhile, the new capital on the lower Mekong was international in outlook, with quarters for Malay, Chinese and Japanese traders, §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ and some post-Classic Khmer kings had Japanese and Portuguese guards in their entourage. §REF§ (Jacq-Hergoualc'h and Smithies 2007, 98) M. Jacq-Hergoualc'h and M. Smithies. 2007. <i>The Armies of Angkor</i>. Bangkok: Orchid Press. §REF§ <br>More generally, this period was characterized by increasing commercial, religious and political connections within mainland Southeast Asia and greater integration into global trade networks, §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 411-12) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ especially after the arrival of the Portuguese in 1511. §REF§ (Hall 2011, 35-36) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ Wars between mainland Southeast Asian rulers did not preclude the development of a common, 'hybrid' culture among the wider population. §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 411-12) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Likewise, one reason for the relocation of the Khmer capital (in addition to Thai attacks and drought coupled with 'intense monsoons') §REF§ (Buckley et al. 2010, 6748) Brendan M. Buckley, Kevin J. Anchukaitisa, Daniel Penny, Roland Fletcher, Edward R. Cook, Masaki Sano, Le Canh Nam, Aroonrut Wichienkeeo, Ton That Minh and Truong Mai Hong. 2010. 'Climate as a Contributing Factor in the Demise of Angkor, Cambodia'. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> 107 (15): 6748-51. §REF§ was likely 'a desire for greater participation in seaborne trade'. §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 410) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 194, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " 'During the first five hundred years or so of the current era, India provided Cambodia with a writing system, a pantheon, meters for poetry, a language (Sanskrit) to write it in, a vocabulary of social hierarchies (not the same as a caste system), Buddhism, the idea of universal kingship, and new ways a looking at politics, sociology, architecture, iconography, astronomy, and aesthetics.'§REF§(Chandler 2008, 17)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "philosophy", "philosophy": "present", "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "KhChenl", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825, "long_name": "Chenla", "new_name": "kh_chenla", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "According to Chinese records, Chenla (also known as Zhenla) §REF§ (Miksic 2007, 426) John N. Miksic. 2007. <i>Historical Dictionary of Ancient Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ was the polity that ruled over much of mainland Southeast Asia after the decline of Funan. §REF§ (Southworth 2004, 324) William A. Southworth. 2004. 'Chenla', in <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopaedia</i>, edited by Keat Gin Ooi, 324-26. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. §REF§ As with Funan, this was likely not a unitary state, but rather a cluster of competing small city-states. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. <i>Antiquity</i> 88: 822-35. §REF§ These states occupied much of modern Cambodia and northwestern Thailand, with sites all across the Mekong River Basin, and particularly dense clusters just before the river's delta, in the Tonlé Sap region, and in the Upper Mun Valley. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. <i>Antiquity</i> 88: 822-35. §REF§ With respect to Chenla's chronological boundaries, many authors date its beginning to the mid-6th century, §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. <i>Antiquity</i> 88: 822-35. §REF§ that is, at the beginning of Funan's century-long decline. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 60-61) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ This is the chronology we follow, although it is worth noting that, according to the Chinese records, Chenla only conquered Funan in the 7th century. §REF§ (Miksic 2007, 426-27) John N. Miksic. 2007. <i>Historical Dictionary of Ancient Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ The Chenla era came to a close at the turn of the the 9th century with the beginning of the Angkor period, traditionally dated from Jayavarman II's coronation ceremony in 802 CE. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 254) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ <br>Population and political organization<br>Although Chenla was probably a cluster of competing centres rather than a unitary polity, inscriptions suggest that there was an overall political hierarchy, at the top of which sat a <i>vrah kamraten</i>, that is, most likely, a deified ruler §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. <i>Antiquity</i> 88: 822-35. §REF§ Below this ruler, there was a series of elite ranks whose relationship to each other is not always clear, though no rank was higher than that of <i>pura</i>. §REF§ (Vickery 1998, 24) Michael Vickery. 1998. <i>Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries</i>. Chicago: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies. §REF§ At the local level, <i>poñ</i> (settlement chiefs) exercised their authority over individual temples, which were important economic as well as ritual centres for their sustaining populace. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831-32) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. <i>Antiquity</i> 88: 822-35. §REF§ <br>No overall population estimates could be found in the literature, but the largest settlement probably housed over 20,000 families, §REF§ (Higham 2014, 293) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ and Chinese records describe Chenla as 'a wealthy and militarily powerful country with over 30 cities'. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 60) Michael Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. London: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-08T12:55:13.437877Z", "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 42, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 195, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " 'During the first five hundred years or so of the current era, India provided Cambodia with a writing system, a pantheon, meters for poetry, a language (Sanskrit) to write it in, a vocabulary of social hierarchies (not the same as a caste system), Buddhism, the idea of universal kingship, and new ways a looking at politics, sociology, architecture, iconography, astronomy, and aesthetics.'§REF§(Chandler 2008, p. 17)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "philosophy", "philosophy": "present", "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "KhFunaE", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540, "long_name": "Funan I", "new_name": "kh_funan_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "'Funan' is the name the Chinese gave to the polity (or cluster of polities) that, between the 3rd and the 7th centuries CE, ruled over much of the southern portion of mainland Southeast Asia ‒ including territory that is today southern Vietnam, Thailand, and Myanmar, as well as all of Cambodia. §REF§ (West 2009, 222) Barbara West. 2009. <i>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ Most likely, what we now know as Funan emerged from Iron Age settlements around the Mekong Delta and the banks of the Mekong river. §REF§ (O'Reilly 2007, 91, 97) Dougald J. W. O'Reilly. 2007. <i>Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham: AltaMira Press. §REF§ The best known of these settlements is the archaeological site of Oc Èo ‒ hence the name 'culture of Oc Èo' to describe mainland Southeast Asian culture at this time. §REF§ (Ooi 2004, 6-7) Keat Gin Ooi. 2004. 'Introduction', in <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor</i>, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. §REF§ <br>Because it is difficult to pinpoint precisely when Funan was founded, here we use 225 CE as our start date. According to written records, this was the year in which the first Funanese embassy visited the Southern Chinese kingdom of Wu. §REF§ (Pelliot 1903, 303) Paul Pelliot. 1903. 'Le Fou-Nan'. <i>Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient</i> 3: 248-303. §REF§ We selected 539 CE as our end date, corresponding to the year King Rudravarman offered the gift of a live rhinoceros to the emperor at Beijing. This is the last time a Funanese ruler is mentioned in any existing records, and indeed it seems that Funan entered a period of gradual decline around this time, until it was supplanted by the Northern Cambodian state of Chenla or Zhenla in the 7th century. §REF§ (Tully 2005, 13) John Tully. 2005. <i>A Short History of Cambodia: From Empire to Survival</i>. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. §REF§ Chenla is the older spelling, the modern romanization of the Chinese character is Zhenla. §REF§ (Miksic, John. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email) §REF§ <br>Funan was rather prosperous, due to its privileged position at the crossroads of important trade routes that linked with India and China. Sources suggest that it reached its peak either in the mid-3rd century (when it extended its influence into Malaysia) §REF§ (Gin 2004, 11) Ooi Keat Gin. 2004. 'Introduction', in <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor</i>, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. §REF§ or between the end of the 5th and the beginning of the 6th century (when it was ruled by King Kaundinya Jayavarman and reached its maximum territorial extent, as well as the zenith of its political and economic power). §REF§ (West 2009, 223-24) Barbara West. 2009. <i>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It is not entirely clear whether Funan was a unitary state, as suggested by Chinese records, or a cluster of competing centres, or indeed the most powerful out of many such polities. §REF§ (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, 73) Ian Mabbett and David Chandler. 1995. <i>The Khmers</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ The highest political authority was probably something like a Mon-Khmer <i>poñ</i>, that is, a settlement chief. There may have been a loose hierarchy of poñ, possibly based on wealth and political influence, with the wealthiest and most powerful poñ viewed as 'kings' by the Chinese. §REF§ (Vickery 1998, 19-20) Michael Vickery. 1998. <i>Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries</i>. Chicago: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for Funan could be found in the literature, as work continues to locate and study settlements from this period. However, it is worth noting that the site of Oc Èo may have covered 450 hectares, with a possible population of many thousands of people. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 65) Michael Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. London: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 196, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " 'During the first five hundred years or so of the current era, India provided Cambodia with a writing system, a pantheon, meters for poetry, a language (Sanskrit) to write it in, a vocabulary of social hierarchies (not the same as a caste system), Buddhism, the idea of universal kingship, and new ways a looking at politics, sociology, architecture, iconography, astronomy, and aesthetics.'§REF§(Chandler 2008, p. 17)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "philosophy", "philosophy": "present", "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "KhFunaL", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640, "long_name": "Funan II", "new_name": "kh_funan_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "'Funan' is the name the Chinese gave to the polity (or cluster of polities) that, between the 3rd and the 7th centuries CE, ruled over much of the southern portion of mainland Southeast Asia ‒ including territory that is today southern Vietnam, Thailand, and Myanmar, as well as all of Cambodia. §REF§ (West 2009, 222) Barbara West. 2009. <i>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ Most likely, what we now know as Funan emerged from Iron Age settlements around the Mekong Delta and the banks of the Mekong river. §REF§ (O'Reilly 2007, 91, 97) Dougald J. W. O'Reilly. 2007. <i>Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham: AltaMira Press. §REF§ The best known of these settlements is the archaeological site of Oc Èo ‒ hence the name 'culture of Oc Èo' to describe mainland Southeast Asian culture at this time. §REF§ (Gin 2004, 6-7) Ooi Keat Gin. 2004. 'Introduction', in <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor</i>, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. §REF§ <br>Our Late Funan period spans the century between 540 (the year following the final mention of a Funanese ruler in the Chinese records) §REF§ (Tully 2005, 13) John Tully. 2005. <i>A Short History of Cambodia: From Empire to Survival</i>. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. §REF§ and 640 CE (a decade or so before the Chinese received embassies from a number of polities subjugated by the Northern Cambodian polity of Chenla). §REF§ (Hall 2010, 60-61) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ This period was one of decline and dissolution, due in large part to significant changes in international trade networks and the nautical technologies on which these trade networks relied. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 60-61) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It is not entirely clear whether Funan was a unitary state, as suggested by Chinese records, or a cluster of competing centres, or indeed the most powerful out of many such polities. §REF§ (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, 73) Ian Mabbett and David Chandler. 1995. <i>The Khmers</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ The highest political authority was probably something like a Mon-Khmer <i>poñ</i>, that is, a settlement chief. There may have been a loose hierarchy of poñ, possibly based on wealth and political influence, with the wealthiest and most powerful poñ viewed as 'kings' by the Chinese. §REF§ (Vickery 1998, 19-20) Michael Vickery. 1998. <i>Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries</i>. Chicago: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for Funan could be found in the literature, as work continues to locate and study settlements from this period. However, Chinese records state that, in the early 7th century, Funan included 30 settlements with about 1,000 households each. §REF§ (Miksic 2007, 125) John N. Miksic. 2007. <i>Historical Dictionary of Ancient Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 200, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.§REF§ Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "philosophy", "philosophy": "absent", "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "MlJeJe1", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49, "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "new_name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The archaeological site of Jenne-jeno (or Djenné-djenno) is a mound located in the Niger Inland Delta, a region of West Africa just south of the Sahara and part of modern-day Mali, characterized by lakes and floodplains. It was continuously inhabited between 250 BCE and 1400 CE. 'Jenne-jeno I' refers to the period of earliest occupation, from 250 BCE to 50 CE. During this time, the site's inhabitants fished, gathered wild plants, hunted, and cultivated rice (as well as millet and sorghum). They also made and used pottery, and smelted, smithed and used iron, though they probably imported the raw material for the latter from far afield. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>There does not seem to be enough data to reconstruct Jenne-jeno's political or social organization at this time, but even for later periods, there is a lack of archaeological evidence for 'coercive' centralized control or the development of hierarchical social structures. §REF§ (Reader 1998, 225, 228) John Reader. 1998. <i>Africa: A Biography of the Continent</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ It is also unclear how many people were living at Jenne-jeno or at the surrounding sites. However, one of the site's excavators, Roderick McIntosh, does say that the founding population was probably not inconsiderable, and expanded rapidly. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 201, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.§REF§ Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "philosophy", "philosophy": "absent", "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "MlJeJe2", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399, "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "new_name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The archaeological site of Jenne-jeno (or Djenné-djenno) is a mound located in the Niger Inland Delta, a region of West Africa just south of the Sahara and part of modern-day Mali, characterized by lakes and floodplains. It was continuously inhabited between 250 BCE and 1400 CE. 'Jenne-jeno II' refers to the period from 50 to 400 CE. During this time, the site's inhabitants fished, gathered wild plants, hunted, and cultivated rice (as well as millet and sorghum). They also made and used pottery, and smelted, smithed and used iron, though they probably imported the raw material for the latter from far afield. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It appears that the heterarchical organization that characterized Jenne-jeno in later times developed during this period. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, xv) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ As for population, it is unclear how many people were living at Jenne-jeno or at the surrounding sites at this time, but a relatively rapid demographic increase is also likely. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 202, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.§REF§ Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "philosophy", "philosophy": "absent", "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "MlJeJe3", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899, "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "new_name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The archaeological site of Jenne-jeno (or Djenné-djenno) is a mound located in the Niger Inland Delta, a region of West Africa just south of the Sahara and part of modern-day Mali, characterized by lakes and floodplains. It was continuously inhabited between 250 BCE and 1400 CE. 'Jenne-jeno III' refers to the period from 400 to 900 CE. This roughly corresponds to the region's 'urban prosperity' phase. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 175-76) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Though subsistence strategies remained largely unchanged, a number of important transformations occurred: the inhabitants of Jenne-jeno grew in number, established long-distance trade networks, and developed more sophisticated metalworking techniques. §REF§ (McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 1) Roderick J. McIntosh and Susan K. McIntosh. 1981. 'The Inland Niger Delta before the Empire of Mali: Evidence from Jenne-jeno'. <i>Journal of African History</i> 22 (1): 1-22. §REF§ §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 175-76) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Between 400 and 800 CE, Jenne-jeno grew from 25 to 33 hectares. Population density was likely high, and a conservative estimate puts the population of Jenne-jeno and its satellites within a one-kilometre radius at 10,000-26,000 people around 800 CE. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The political organization of Jenne-jeno may have been quite different from that of other ancient cities. In several decades of excavation, clear evidence for hierarchies of any kind has yet to be unearthed: it seems that Jenne-jeno had no palaces, rich tombs, temples, public buildings, or monumental architecture. Indeed, the city's very layout ‒ an assemblage of dispersed clusters ‒ suggests a resistance to centralization. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 189) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It is possible that, at this time, Niger Inland Delta society was organized 'heterarchically' rather than hierarchically: that is, it was divided into multiple components, each deriving authority from separate or overlapping sources, with mechanisms in place to prevent any one group from monopolizing power. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 228-29) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 203, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D.\" §REF§(Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§ \"The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.§REF§ Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.§REF§(Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "philosophy", "philosophy": "absent", "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "MlJeJe4", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300, "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "new_name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The archaeological site of Jenne-jeno (or Djenné-djenno) is a mound located in the Niger Inland Delta, a region of West Africa just south of the Sahara and part of modern-day Mali, characterized by lakes and floodplains. It was continuously inhabited between 250 BCE and 1300 CE. 'Jenne-jeno IV' refers to the period from 900 to 1300 CE. This roughly corresponds to the tail end of the region's 'urban prosperity' phase, and the beginning of the 'urban shake-up'. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 175-76) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ By this period, the inhabitants of Jenne-jeno had established long-distance trade networks and developed bronzeworking. Around 1000, they started working with brass, and the population continued to grow, reaching its peak between 1100 and 1200. They also produced an impressive corpus of terracotta figurines. However, in the 13th century, the population decreased rapidly, eventually leading to the abandonment of several sites, Jenne-jeno included, by 1400. The reasons for the decline are unclear, but they may include climate change, pandemic diseases such as plague, cultural upheaval deriving from the arrival of Islam and horses, and the emergence of the great West African empires of Ghana, Mali and Songhai. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 176-177) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>No population estimates could be found specifically for this period. However, the combined population of Jenne-jeno and its satellites within a one-kilometre radius had probably reached 10,000-26,000 people by 800 CE. The population continued to grow until 1200, and then rapidly declined in the 13th and 14th centuries. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-77) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The political organization of Jenne-jeno may have been quite different from that of other ancient cities. In several decades of excavation, clear evidence for hierarchies of any kind has yet to be unearthed: it seems that Jenne-jeno had no palaces, rich tombs, temples, public buildings, or monumental architecture. Indeed, the city's very layout ‒ an assemblage of dispersed clusters ‒ suggests a resistance to centralization. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 189) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It is possible that, at this time, Niger Inland Delta society was organized 'heterarchically' rather than hierarchically: that is, it was divided into multiple components, each deriving authority from separate or overlapping sources, with mechanisms in place to prevent any one group from monopolizing power. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 228-29) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-08T14:01:23.818586Z", "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }