Polity Suprapolity Relations List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Suprapolity Relations.
GET /api/general/polity-suprapolities/?page=40
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Some scholars argue that beginning of Early Bronze age should be dated to around 3000 BCE.<br><br/>This is clearly visible at the monumental graves, known as Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük site. These tombs yielded over 700 items that we can grouped into 12 typological categories. A multiplicity of materials were used in those grave goods - from metals (copper, bronze, silver, gold, electrum, iron, lead, haematite), stones (carnelian, rock crystal, chalcedony, flint, lapis lazuli), frit, faience, pottery, to bone and textiles. The most spectacular findings were anthropomorphic figurines, which were made by the combination more than one metal in a single object. In these Royal Tombs we can find also remains of ceremonial funerary feasts. Some animals were slaughtered, the oxen being the most common.<br>Many sites of this period were well fortified. Proof of wooden palisades and stone walls was found in Karataş-Semayük, and just stone walls in for example Taurus and Demircihöyük. At Alişar Hüyük, complex fortifications were excavated - a well constructed stronghold wall, and 10 meters of fortification on the terrace. One of these walls was set behind the other, and onto it rectangular-shaped bastions were constructed. A lot of handheld weapons were also found in Central Anatolia Plateau, for example: swords, daggers, pikes, halberds, spears, battle axes and warclubs. At the Demircihöyük and Karataş-Semayük sites, there were extramural Early Bronze Age cemeteries - altogether there were about 900 pithoi burials, and the majority of bodies was facing Southeast.<br>The pottery of Anatolian Early Bronze Age was distinctive by red monochrome wares. In terms of animal remains, it can be concluded that Sheep and goats were most dominant (at Acemhöyük), representing 63-68 percent of the faunal remains, followed by cattle and pigs.<br><br/><br>Wood or rather wooden planks were used in Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük. \"The burials consisted of a rectangular pit roofed with wooden planks.\" §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimanksy, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, p. 214. §REF§ <br>Flint/Obsidian present §REF§ Knitter D. \"Concepts of Centrality and Models of Exchange in Prehistoric Western Anatolia\" In: \"Landscape Archaeology. Proceedings of the International Conference Held in Berlin, 6th - 8th June 2012\", p. 363. §REF§ §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimanksy, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, p. 214. §REF§ <br>Building stone present Building stone was used e.g. in Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük. \"The lower parts of these shafts consisted of rectangular stone-lined pits in wchich a single person was normally buried\" §REF§ Düring B. S., \"The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.\", Cambridge 2011, p. 291. §REF§ \"The most numerous examples of the megaron plan are found in the Early Bronze Age village at Karataş (Troy I-II period), where stone foundations of over thirty such structures have been uncovered in recent excavations.\" §REF§ Warner J., \"The Megaron and Apsidal House in Early Bronze Age Western Anatolia: New Evidence from Karataş\", In: \"American Journal of Archaeology\", Vol. 83, No. 2 (Apr., 1979), p. 138. §REF§ <br>Copper present E.g. grave goods §REF§ Düring B. S., \"The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.\", Cambridge 2011, p. 291. §REF§ <br>Tin/Arsenic present Kestel §REF§ Yener K. A., \"An Early Bronze Age Tin Production Site at Göltepe, Turkey.\", In: \"The Oriental Institute News and Notes\", Vol. 140 (1994) §REF§ \"The Kestel-Göltepe complex is vast. The mine itself comprises a network of eight galleries, extending in various directions. Some 4500 cubic meters of ore were extracted, often through precariously narrow tunnels, using fire and large ground stone hammers to shatter the ore. Even if the ore mined in antiquity were low grade, containing only 1 % of tin like some the nodules found in the excavations, the size of the galleries point to the produciotn of some 115 tons of tin.\" §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, pp. 200-2001. §REF§ <br>Iron present E.g. grave goods §REF§ Düring B. S., \"The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.\", Cambridge 2011, p. 291. §REF§ . Iron Dagger §REF§ Düring B. S., \"The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.\", Cambridge 2011, p. 292. §REF§ <br>Material to make ornaments gold, silver, carnelian, jade, rock crystal \"In terms of jewellery, we should note the ability of the craftsmen to combine gold and silver with precious stones (carnelian, jade, and rock crystal), a technique especially favored for pins, and at the same time the conspicious absence of filigree and granulation.\" §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, pp. 208-209. §REF§ <br>Lead present Most of all as grave goods §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, pp. 214-217 §REF§ <br>Agropastoral with pastoral dominating Sheep and goats were the dominant component of the animal economy at Acemhöyük III and II, representing 63-68 percent of the faunal remains, followed by cattle and pigs. This is similar to the situation observed at contemporary sites on the central plateau including Kaman Kalehhöyük, Küultepe, and Çadır Höyük. §REF§ Arbuckle B., \"Pastoralism, Provisioning, and Power at Bronze Age Acemhöyük, Turkey\", In: \"American Anthropologist\", Vol. 114 (2012), Issue 3, p. 466. §REF§ <br>Iron present Pieces of iron object found in Tomb L in Alacahöyük §REF§ Yalçin Ü. and H. G., \"Reassessing Antropomorphic Metal Figurines of Alacahöyük, Anatolia\", In: \"Near Eastern Archeology\" Vol. 76:1 (2013), p. 41. §REF§ .<br>Metals present §REF§ Efe T., \"The Theories of the 'Great Caravan Route' between Cilicia and Troy: The Early Bronze Age III Period in Inland Western Anatolia\" In: \"Anatolian Studies\", Vol. 57, Transanatolia: Bridging the Gap between East and West inthe Archaeology of Ancient Anatolia (2007), p. 49 §REF§ <br>Raw materials present Melian Obsidian in Beycesultan §REF§ Knitter D. \"Concepts of Centrality and Models of Exchange in Prehistoric Western Anatolia\" In: \"Landscape Archaeology. Proceedings of the International Conference Held in Berlin, 6th - 8th June 2012\", p. 363. §REF§ <br>Pottery present Trojan <i>depas</i> vessel, two-handled tankards, wheelmade plain plates and bowls §REF§ Ancient Anatolia, 10,000-323 B.C.E, S.R. Steadman, G.McMahon, Oxford University Press, 2011. Chapter 10 §REF§ <br>Coppersmith present §REF§ Yakar T., \"Regional and Local Schools of Metalwork in Early Bronze Age Anatolia: Part I\", In: \"Anatolian Studies\", Vol. 34 (1984), p. 75. §REF§ <br>Pottery present §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, \"Ancient Turkey\", USA 2009, p. 197. §REF§ <br>Butcher present §REF§ Arbuckle B., \"Pastoralism, Provisioning, and Power at Bronze Age Acemhöyük, Turkey\", In: \"American Anthropologist\", Vol. 114 (2012), Issue 3, p. 468. §REF§ <br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 270, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "PkIndGr", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10, "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "new_name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Indo-Greek 'kingdom' was created after the Greco-Bactrians invaded northern India from 180 BCE. It consisted of a number of dynastic polities that ruled from regional capitals and formed a single entity only to the extent their rulers were able to collaborate. More than 30 kings are known, who were often in conflict with each other. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. <i>Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road.</i> The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§ <br>Bopearachchi suggests the period was founded by two kings, Demetrius I and Agathocles, who ruled around 185 BCE, but Jakobsson (2009) believes that a later king known as Menander was \"instrumental in the creation of the era.\" §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009) Jakobsson, Jens. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. pp. 505-510. §REF§ The lack of consistent or reliable sources from either Western or Chinese sources means that much of what we know is speculative and reliant on numismatic evidence. §REF§ (Guillaume 1986, 1-16) Olivier Guillaume. 1986. \"An Analysis of the Modes of Reconstruction of the Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek History.\" Studies in History 2, no. 1 §REF§ <br>It is likely the rulers, who simultaneously produced their own coinage, ruled different parts of the Indo-Greek polity and employed their own administrators. §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009. 505-510) Jens Jakobsson. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. §REF§ Governance of the Indo-Greek region was for the most part through personal kingship and organization extended only to the limits of a particular king's power. §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009, 505-510) Jens Jakobsson, Jens. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. §REF§ <br>After 145 BCE, Successive nomadic invasions by Scythians and other nomads isolated the Indo-Greeks from the wider Hellenic world. By the beginning of the first century CE, the Greco-Bactrian state was extinguished as an independent entity. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. <i>Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road.</i> The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§ <br>Of the legacy of the civilization, the Greek alphabet survived until the Islamic conquest as the script of the Bactrian language, and the conversion of a Indo-Greek King to Buddhism became a part of the zeitgeist of the Indian collective historical memory. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. <i>Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road.</i> The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-11-20T10:59:20.104782Z", "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 38, "name": "Pakistan", "subregions_list": "Pakistan", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 284, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "SdKusht", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656, "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "new_name": "eg_kushite", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Towards the end of the preceding Thebes-Libyan period, the northern reaches of the Nile River were invaded by Amun-worshipping Kushites from the south who had built up a strong state based in Napata, in the Sudan, at the foot of Gebel Barkal mountain. §REF§ (Leclant 1981, 285) J. Leclant. 1981. 'The Empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>, edited by G. Mokhtar, 278-97. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The first Kushite ruler of Egypt, Piye, was crowned in Napata; §REF§ (Török 1997, 154) László Török. 1997. <i>The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meriotic Civilization</i> Handbook of Oriental Studies, No. 31. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ this remained the capital of the Kushite Empire until c. 716 BCE, when the entire Nile Valley up to the delta was acquired under Shabaka, §REF§ (Leclant 1981, 280) J. Leclant. 1981. 'The Empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>, edited by G. Mokhtar, 278-97. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ who then moved the capital and royal residence from Napata to Memphis in order to emphasize the foreign dynasty's respect for traditional Egyptian customs. §REF§ (Török 1997, 167) László Török. 1997. <i>The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meriotic Civilization</i> Handbook of Oriental Studies, No. 31. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 349) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Kushite rule of Egypt (the Twenty-fifth Dynasty) occurred within an extremely complex political climate that has been the cause of much debate among historians. The Twenty-third Dynasty of the preceding Thebes-Libyan Period survived throughout this period, only to be toppled by the first ruler of the Saite Kingdom, Psamtek I (r. 664-610; Twenty-sixth Dynasty). The Egyptologist Jeremy Pope concludes that the 'Double Kingdom' (Kushite and Libyo-Egyptian) had some form of 'nominal unity' across a large territory. §REF§ (Pope 2014, 280) Jeremy Pope. 2014. <i>The Double Kingdom Under Taharqo</i>. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Population and political organization<br>Scholars debate the extent to which there was a centralized bureaucracy in Egypt under Kushite rule. In Lower Nubia, the Kushite king may have exercised power through 'invisible elites' such as merchants, pastoralists, and local potentates - 'a striking contrast with the bureaucratic formalization of Upper Egypt'. §REF§ (Pope 2014, 191) Jeremy Pope. 2014. <i>The Double Kingdom Under Taharqo</i>. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Archaeologist Robert Morkot has argued that the Twenty-fifth Dynasty kept the Egyptian administrative system largely unchanged, making only relatively minor alterations such as appointing new individuals or families to official positions. §REF§ (Morkot 2013, 963) Robert G. Morkot. 2014. 'Thebes under the Kushites', in <i>Tombs of the South Asasif Necropolis: Thebes, Karakhamun (TT 223), and Karabasken (TT 391) in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty</i>, edited by Elena Pischikova, 5-22. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ However, Jeremy Pope believes that we cannot use New Kingdom analogies to draw conclusions about Kushite governing principles, and that 'central authority and administration had disappeared' in this period. §REF§ (Pope 2014, 203) Jeremy Pope. 2014. <i>The Double Kingdom Under Taharqo</i>. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The Egyptian position of vizier probably continued but was 'deprived of effective power'. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 348) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>What is not in doubt is that the Kushite king was a powerful military ruler and, in the Libyan tradition, likely made marriage alliances with the elite throughout Egypt. §REF§ (Morkot 2013, 961) Robert G. Morkot. 2014. 'Thebes under the Kushites', in <i>Tombs of the South Asasif Necropolis: Thebes, Karakhamun (TT 223), and Karabasken (TT 391) in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty</i>, edited by Elena Pischikova, 5-22. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ In general, Kushite rule drew its power from military capacity and the day-to-day workings of local government were left in the hands of the Egyptian dynasts. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 243) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Nubians and Egyptians also shared a common set of religious practices. King Piye, who successfully invaded Egypt, boasted of his divine legitimacy on a stele: 'Amon of Napata has made me sovereign over every people', §REF§ (Leclant 1981, 280) J. Leclant. 1981. 'The Empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>, edited by G. Mokhtar, 278-97. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ and established an official cult of Amun around 780-760 BCE; his sister became priestess. §REF§ (Török 1997, 144) László Török. 1997. <i>The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meriotic Civilization</i> Handbook of Oriental Studies, No. 31. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The existing powerful religious offices in Upper Egypt were also important for Kushite rule: the position of God's Wife (or Divine Adoratrice) at Thebes was maintained due to its political utility, and Kushite royals were installed as high priests. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 243) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In earlier times, the high priest at Thebes had exercised both civil and military authority, but the Kushites maintained their own Kushite military commanders, while civil authority was given initially to Kushite governors and later to 'Theban bureaucrats'. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 208) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The end of Kushite rule in Egypt and the beginning of the Saite Dynasty furnishes a rare example of a peaceful transition, involving the adoption of the Saite princess Nitocris by the last Kushite Divine Adoratrice of Amun, Amenirdis II, in 656 BC. §REF§ (Morkot 2013) Robert G. Morkot. 2014. 'Thebes under the Kushites', in <i>Tombs of the South Asasif Necropolis: Thebes, Karakhamun (TT 223), and Karabasken (TT 391) in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty</i>, edited by Elena Pischikova, 5-22. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ <br>Kushite-period Memphis, where the chief royal residence was based, §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 349) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ is thought to have had a population of perhaps 65,000; the first capital, Napata, about 43,000. The Kushite Empire spanned roughly 600,000-700,000 square kilometres, but it is difficult to find reliable estimates for its population.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }