Polity Suprapolity Relations List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Suprapolity Relations.
GET /api/general/polity-suprapolities/
{ "count": 393, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/general/polity-suprapolities/?page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 41, "year_from": 1191, "year_to": 1250, "description": "to Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad §REF§(Marsot 1985, 21)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-25T14:04:09.759660Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "supra-polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "nominal allegiance", "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "EgAyyub", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250, "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "new_name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Ayyubid Sultanate was established in Egypt by Saladin (Ṣalāḥ-al-dīn), a member of the Kurdish Ayyubid family who had risen to prominence in Syria in the service of a local ruling dynasty, the Zangids. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 24 February 2017). §REF§ In 1168-69 CE, the Zangid prince Nur al-Din placed Saladin's uncle, Shirkuh, in command of a military expedition to Egypt (at that time under Fatimid rule) to take control of the country and expel the invading Frankish Crusaders. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 218) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 290) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Saladin accompanied him and was appointed vizier of Egypt by the Fatimid caliph when Shirkuh died in 1169. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 24 February 2017). §REF§ <br>Saladin, however, did not have the local dynasty's interests at heart. He immediately set about undermining its power and the Ismaili (Shi'a) Islam professed by its elite in favour of a new Sunni order, in theory loyal to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 210-11) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ We begin our Ayyubid Sultanate polity in 1171, when the last Fatimid caliph, Al-Adid, died and Saladin progressed from vizier to sultan in Egypt. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 210) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ He nevertheless suppressed his ambitions until his old Zangid overlord Nur al-Din died in 1174, after which he launched a successful campaign of military expansion into the Levant and Upper Mesopotamia, as well as a brief 'holy war' on the Crusader states along the Levantine coast. §REF§ (Lyons and Jackson 1982, 201) Malcolm Cameron Lyons and D. E. P. Jackson. 1982. <i>Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ <br>A succession crisis followed Saladin's death in 1193, and a devastating famine in 1200 reduced parts of the population to cannibalism. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 226) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, Saladin's brother, al-'Adil, declared himself sultan in 1200 and managed to impose some degree of internal stability on the empire, §REF§ (Humphreys 1977, 125-26) R. Stephen Humphreys. 1977. <i>From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193‒1260</i>. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. §REF§ which was split into the kingdoms of Egypt, Damascus, Aleppo and Mosul. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The reign of al-'Adil's son, al-Kamil, from 1218 to 1238 CE, was also a relatively stable and prosperous period in Egypt, §REF§ (Werthmuller 2010, 48) Kurt J. Werthmuller. 2010. <i>Coptic Identity and Ayyubid Politics in Egypt, 1218‒1250</i>. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ although he faced opposition from Ayyubid princes in Syria and Palestine. §REF§ (Hamblin 2005, 753) William J. Hamblin. 2005. 'Egypt: Ayyubid Dynasty, 1169-1250', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History, volume 1: A-G</i>, edited by Kevin Shillington, 752-54. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn. §REF§ <br>As-Salih Ayyub, the sultan who came to power in 1240 CE, §REF§ (Keenan 1999, 287) James G. Keenan. 1999. 'Fayyum Agriculture at the End of the Ayyubid Era: Nabulsi's <i>Survey'.</i> <i>Proceedings of the British Academy</i> 96: 287-99. §REF§ attempted to enhance his power at the expense of other Ayyubid princely lines by purchasing many more Turkish Mamluks (high-ranking slave soldiers) than his predecessors. §REF§ (Levanoni 1990, 124) Amalia Levanoni. 1990. 'The Mamluks' Ascent to Power in Egypt'. <i>Studia Islamica</i> 72: 121-44. §REF§ They served him as a military and governmental elite. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ §REF§ (Levanoni 1990, 124) Amalia Levanoni. 1990. 'The Mamluks' Ascent to Power in Egypt'. <i>Studia Islamica</i> 72: 121-44. §REF§ The Mamluks' increasingly powerful position proved to be the downfall of the Ayyubid Sultanate when, after Salih-Ayyub's death in 1249, one faction (the Bahriyya Mamluks) assassinated his son Turanshah and seized the throne. §REF§ (Levanoni 1990, 137) Amalia Levanoni. 1990. 'The Mamluks' Ascent to Power in Egypt'. <i>Studia Islamica</i> 72: 121-44. §REF§ The Ayyubid dynasty hung onto power in Syria until 1260, when the Mamluks defeated the invading Mongols at 'Ayn Jalut and gained popular recognition of their right to rule as 'saviours of Islam'. §REF§ (Northrup 1998, 248) Linda S. Northrup. 1998. 'The Baḥrī Mamlūk Sultanate, 1250‒1390', in <i>The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1: Islamic Egypt, 640‒1517</i>, edited by Carl F. Petry, 242-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, we end our Ayyubid period with the assassination of Turanshah, the last Ayyubid sultan of Egypt.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Ayyubids made use of the pre-existing Fatimid bureaucratic system to administer Egypt, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 246) I. M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and ruled via a Turkish and Kurdish 'military aristocracy', including some slave (Mamluk) regiments. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lev 2010, 210, 213) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ This was funded by the distribution of <i>iqta's</i> ‒ rights to tax revenue from estates of land ‒ in exchange for military and administrative services. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291, 877) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Saladin and his successors also promoted Sunni Islam in the empire by sponsoring law schools (<i>madrasas</i>) to serve as centres for the teaching of Sunni law. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291, 877) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ayyubid Sultanate was never particularly centralized: it has been described as a 'family confederation', meaning that male members of the ruling dynasty were given principalities across the realm and allowed to govern them with substantial political autonomy. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ Kinship ties determined relationships between different princes, so that, for example, two brothers ruling different regions would have less authority over each other than a father would over his son. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ However, the sultan of Egypt was usually successful in asserting his suzerainty over the other kingdoms. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291, 877) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to find substantiated estimates for the population of the entire Ayyubid Sultanate, but there were about 2.4 million people in Egypt under Saladin. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 149) M. W. Dols. 1977. <i>The Black Death in the Middle East</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": { "id": 484, "name": "IqAbbs2", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258, "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "new_name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Second Abbasid Period (1191-1258 CE) was mostly remarkable for the city of Baghdad which is usually estimated to have had about 1 million inhabitants at the time of the Mongol sack in 1258 CE.<br>With the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258 CE \"the culture, science and learning for which Baghdad had been known for centuries simply disappeared in a period of a week.\" §REF§ (DeVries 2014, 209) Kelly DeVries in Morton, N. John, S. eds. 2014. Crusading and Warfare in the Middle Ages: Realities and Representations. Essays in Honour of John France. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. §REF§ The city was defended by a garrison of just 10,000 soldiers. §REF§ (DeVries 2014, 207) Kelly DeVries in Morton, N. John, S. eds. 2014. Crusading and Warfare in the Middle Ages: Realities and Representations. Essays in Honour of John France. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. §REF§ <br>In 1200 CE the Abbasids held Iraq and part of western Iran south of the Caspian, the territories holding perhaps 3.9 million inhabitants. The governance system was still Perso-Islamic with a vizier chief bureaucrat who oversaw government departments. §REF§ (Shaw 1976, 5) Stanford J Shaw. 1976. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The reign of al-Nasir (1180-1225 CE) was notable for being absolutely repressive \"the caliph's spies were so efficient and the caliph himself so ruthless that a man hardly dared to speak to his own wife in the privacy of his home.\" §REF§ (Bray 2015, xxi) Shawkat M Toorawa ed. 2015. Consorts of the Caliphs: Women and the Court of Baghdad. NYU Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 62, "name": "Mesopotamia", "subregions_list": "Iraq, Kuwait", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 393, "year_from": 1194, "year_to": 1197, "description": "Henry VI ascended to the throne of Sicily following the death of William II, the last Norman king without a direct heir, and after defeating the rival claimants who were supported by the local nobility and external forces including the Byzantine Empire.\r\nHenry VI was crowned King of Sicily at Palermo in 1194, adding the kingdom to his territories which already included the German and Italian lands under the Holy Roman Empire.§REF§Deutsche Biographie, “Heinrich VI. - Deutsche Biographie,”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N3KBRKCS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N3KBRKCS</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-04-25T11:39:13.149184Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-25T11:39:13.149196Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "polity": { "id": 326, "name": "ItSicilK", "start_year": 1194, "end_year": 1281, "long_name": "Kingdom of Sicily - Hohenstaufen and Angevin dynasties", "new_name": "it_sicily_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-06T09:11:10.401438Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 37, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": null, "other_polity": { "id": 799, "name": "de_empire_2", "start_year": 1126, "end_year": 1254, "long_name": "Holy Roman Empire - Hohenstaufen and Welf Dynasties", "new_name": "de_empire_2", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "The Holy Roman Empire during the Hohenstaufen and Welf dynasties (1126 to 1254) represented a period of both significant internal strife and expansion. Spanning regions that include modern-day Germany, Italy, and parts of Eastern and Central Europe. The period is defined by an ongoing competition between the House of Welf and the Hohenstaufen dynasty. This rivalry, deeply rooted in contesting claims to territories and power, significantly influenced the Empire's internal dynamics.§REF§Odilo Engels, Die Staufer, 9., erg. Aufl., Kohlhammer-Urban-Taschenbücher Geschichte, Politikwissenschaft Bd. 154 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2010).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HINBRJJK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HINBRJJK</b></a>§REF§\r\nThis period begins after the death of the last Salian emperor, Henry V, in 1125. He had no heirs, and a period of intra-elite conflict followed, with rival factions supporting the Saxon noble Lothair III and Conrad III, of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. In 1138, Conrad III was elected king, shifting the centre of imperial power to Swabia. Unlike the Ottonian and Salian rulers who preceded them, the Hohenstaufens faced challenges in asserting their control over the Empire's semi-autonomous territories. The lack of a central capital and unified legal system continued to characterize the Empire, with German kings maintaining their tradition of being crowned as Roman Emperors, a practice that underscored the Empire's claim to the Roman legacy. The House of Welf, wielding significant influence and territorial control, particularly in Saxony and Bavaria, emerged as formidable contenders to Hohenstaufen authority.§REF§Odilo Engels, Die Staufer, 9., erg. Aufl., Kohlhammer-Urban-Taschenbücher Geschichte, Politikwissenschaft Bd. 154 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2010).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HINBRJJK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HINBRJJK</b></a>§REF§\r\nFrederick I Barbarossa, one of the most renowned Hohenstaufen emperors. His reign (1152-1190) was distinguished by efforts to assert imperial authority in Italy, leading to prolonged conflicts with the Lombard League and the Papacy.§REF§Knut Görich, Friedrich Barbarossa: Eine Biographie (München: C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9TFKFYQP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9TFKFYQP</b></a>§REF§ The period was also notable for the Crusades, with emperors like Frederick I and Frederick II participating in these expeditions, which, while aimed at expanding Christendom, also served to enhance the imperial prestige. Frederick II (1212-1250), in particular, stood out for his cultural patronage and administrative reforms, earning him the title Stupor Mundi (\"Wonder of the World\"). However, his reign was also marked by continuous conflicts with the Papacy and internal princely factions, underscoring the fractious nature of imperial authority.§REF§“Crusades - Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, Mediterranean | Britannica,” accessed February 4, 2024, https://www.britannica.com/event/Crusades/The-Crusade-of-Frederick-II.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VBH9IK4D\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VBH9IK4D</b></a>§REF§The struggle for control in Italy, especially over the Kingdom of Sicily, which was under Hohenstaufen rule through marriage alliances, further complicated the Empire's internal dynamics. These Italian campaigns drained the Empire's resources and diverted attention from northern territories, leading to increased autonomy for local princes and a gradual weakening of central authority.§REF§PAOLO GRILLO, LEGNANO 1176;UNA BATTAGLIA PER LA LIBERTA ([S.l.]: EDITORI LATERZA, 2012).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/49Y52W3A\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 49Y52W3A</b></a>§REF§§REF§Herbert Grundmann and Friedrich Baethgen, Deutsches Archiv Für Erforschung Des Mittelalters, 24 (Köln ; Graz: Böhlau, 1968)<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PG54JSAE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PG54JSAE</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe death of Frederick II and the subsequent demise of his heirs led to the Interregnum (1254-1273), a period of significant political fragmentation and decline in imperial power. This era saw the rise of princely states and the increasing irrelevance of the imperial title.§REF§Martin Kaufhold, Deutsches Interregnum Und Europäische Politik: Konfliktlösungen Und Entscheidungsstrukturen 1230-1280, Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Schriften Bd. 49 (Hannover: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, 2000).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3VKQVTUM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3VKQVTUM</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR 14.03.24: changing start date from 1138 to 1126 based on discussion with Jakob Zsambok. Previously there was a gap between de_empire_1 and de_empire_2. Also updated the GD.", "created_date": "2024-01-26T14:15:08.249726Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-15T14:59:04.617758Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 21, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 394, "year_from": 1215, "year_to": 1250, "description": "Frederick II was crowned as King of the Romans on 25 July 1215, in Aachen, marking the end of the German throne dispute. Frederick II ascended to the throne of Sicily as a child following his mother's death in 1198. His early years were marked by regencies until he came of age.§REF§Olaf B. Rader, Friedrich II: Der Sizilianer Auf Dem Kaiserthron: Eine Biographie (München: Beck, 2010).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9YCFRHDU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9YCFRHDU</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-04-25T11:49:45.748028Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-25T11:49:45.748041Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "polity": { "id": 799, "name": "de_empire_2", "start_year": 1126, "end_year": 1254, "long_name": "Holy Roman Empire - Hohenstaufen and Welf Dynasties", "new_name": "de_empire_2", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "The Holy Roman Empire during the Hohenstaufen and Welf dynasties (1126 to 1254) represented a period of both significant internal strife and expansion. Spanning regions that include modern-day Germany, Italy, and parts of Eastern and Central Europe. The period is defined by an ongoing competition between the House of Welf and the Hohenstaufen dynasty. This rivalry, deeply rooted in contesting claims to territories and power, significantly influenced the Empire's internal dynamics.§REF§Odilo Engels, Die Staufer, 9., erg. Aufl., Kohlhammer-Urban-Taschenbücher Geschichte, Politikwissenschaft Bd. 154 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2010).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HINBRJJK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HINBRJJK</b></a>§REF§\r\nThis period begins after the death of the last Salian emperor, Henry V, in 1125. He had no heirs, and a period of intra-elite conflict followed, with rival factions supporting the Saxon noble Lothair III and Conrad III, of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. In 1138, Conrad III was elected king, shifting the centre of imperial power to Swabia. Unlike the Ottonian and Salian rulers who preceded them, the Hohenstaufens faced challenges in asserting their control over the Empire's semi-autonomous territories. The lack of a central capital and unified legal system continued to characterize the Empire, with German kings maintaining their tradition of being crowned as Roman Emperors, a practice that underscored the Empire's claim to the Roman legacy. The House of Welf, wielding significant influence and territorial control, particularly in Saxony and Bavaria, emerged as formidable contenders to Hohenstaufen authority.§REF§Odilo Engels, Die Staufer, 9., erg. Aufl., Kohlhammer-Urban-Taschenbücher Geschichte, Politikwissenschaft Bd. 154 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2010).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HINBRJJK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HINBRJJK</b></a>§REF§\r\nFrederick I Barbarossa, one of the most renowned Hohenstaufen emperors. His reign (1152-1190) was distinguished by efforts to assert imperial authority in Italy, leading to prolonged conflicts with the Lombard League and the Papacy.§REF§Knut Görich, Friedrich Barbarossa: Eine Biographie (München: C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9TFKFYQP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9TFKFYQP</b></a>§REF§ The period was also notable for the Crusades, with emperors like Frederick I and Frederick II participating in these expeditions, which, while aimed at expanding Christendom, also served to enhance the imperial prestige. Frederick II (1212-1250), in particular, stood out for his cultural patronage and administrative reforms, earning him the title Stupor Mundi (\"Wonder of the World\"). However, his reign was also marked by continuous conflicts with the Papacy and internal princely factions, underscoring the fractious nature of imperial authority.§REF§“Crusades - Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, Mediterranean | Britannica,” accessed February 4, 2024, https://www.britannica.com/event/Crusades/The-Crusade-of-Frederick-II.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VBH9IK4D\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VBH9IK4D</b></a>§REF§The struggle for control in Italy, especially over the Kingdom of Sicily, which was under Hohenstaufen rule through marriage alliances, further complicated the Empire's internal dynamics. These Italian campaigns drained the Empire's resources and diverted attention from northern territories, leading to increased autonomy for local princes and a gradual weakening of central authority.§REF§PAOLO GRILLO, LEGNANO 1176;UNA BATTAGLIA PER LA LIBERTA ([S.l.]: EDITORI LATERZA, 2012).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/49Y52W3A\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 49Y52W3A</b></a>§REF§§REF§Herbert Grundmann and Friedrich Baethgen, Deutsches Archiv Für Erforschung Des Mittelalters, 24 (Köln ; Graz: Böhlau, 1968)<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PG54JSAE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PG54JSAE</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe death of Frederick II and the subsequent demise of his heirs led to the Interregnum (1254-1273), a period of significant political fragmentation and decline in imperial power. This era saw the rise of princely states and the increasing irrelevance of the imperial title.§REF§Martin Kaufhold, Deutsches Interregnum Und Europäische Politik: Konfliktlösungen Und Entscheidungsstrukturen 1230-1280, Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Schriften Bd. 49 (Hannover: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, 2000).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3VKQVTUM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3VKQVTUM</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR 14.03.24: changing start date from 1138 to 1126 based on discussion with Jakob Zsambok. Previously there was a gap between de_empire_1 and de_empire_2. Also updated the GD.", "created_date": "2024-01-26T14:15:08.249726Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-15T14:59:04.617758Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 21, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": null, "other_polity": { "id": 326, "name": "ItSicilK", "start_year": 1194, "end_year": 1281, "long_name": "Kingdom of Sicily - Hohenstaufen and Angevin dynasties", "new_name": "it_sicily_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-06T09:11:10.401438Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 37, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 378, "year_from": 1296, "year_to": 1306, "description": "Wenceslaus II and his son Wenceslaus III ruled Poland in personal union.§REF§Rosamond McKitterick, ed., The New Cambridge Medieval History (Cambridge [England] ; New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press, 1995).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SQR4J7RI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SQR4J7RI</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-03-17T19:58:34.611334Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-24T12:51:28.072977Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "polity": { "id": 598, "name": "cz_bohemian_k_1", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309, "long_name": "Kingdom of Bohemia - Přemyslid Dynasty", "new_name": "cz_bohemian_k_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty from 1198 to 1309 CE was a period marked by significant development, territorial expansion, and the consolidation of royal power, which laid the foundational structures of the Bohemian state and its integration into the broader European medieval political landscape. This era witnessed the transformation of Bohemia from a duchy into a kingdom, with Prague emerging as a significant cultural and political center in Central Europe.§REF§Jaroslav Pánek and Oldřich Tůma, A History of the Czech Lands (Prague: Karolinum Press, 2009).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5MFK58ZP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5MFK58ZP</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe formal recognition of Bohemia as a kingdom came in 1198, when Duke Ottokar I assumed the title of King, a status confirmed by the Holy Roman Emperor. This elevation reflected not only the growing power and prestige of the Přemyslid rulers but also the strategic importance of Bohemia within the Holy Roman Empire.§REF§Jörg K. Hoensch, Geschichte Böhmens: von der slavischen Landnahme bis zur Gegenwart.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APL977ZI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: APL977ZI</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Přemyslid dynasty, which traced its origins back to the 9th century, was instrumental in shaping the identity and political structures of the Bohemian state.§REF§Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Neue Deutsche Biographie.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2B7YCXT3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2B7YCXT3</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nOne of the most notable rulers of this period was Ottokar II (1253-1278), known as Ottokar the Great. His reign was characterized by ambitious territorial expansion, extending Bohemian control over adjacent regions, including Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, thereby significantly enhancing the kingdom's power and influence in Central Europe. Ottokar II's efforts to consolidate his rule and expand his territory brought him into conflict with other regional powers and the Holy Roman Emperor, leading to his eventual defeat and death at the Battle of Marchfeld in 1278.§REF§Hoensch, Přemysl Otakar II. von Böhmen.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LVNSK3MW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LVNSK3MW</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nDespite the dynastic challenges and occasional conflicts with the Holy Roman Empire, the Přemyslid dynasty succeeded in maintaining Bohemia's sovereignty and distinct identity within the imperial framework. The legal codifications and administrative reforms of this period laid the groundwork for the kingdom's future development.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe end of the Přemyslid dynasty came in 1306, following the assassination of Wenceslaus III. The subsequent period saw the rise of the Luxembourg dynasty, which would continue to shape the kingdom's trajectory in the future.§REF§Hirschbiegel, Höfe und Residenzen im spätmittelalterlichen Reich.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R4DMTD9L\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: R4DMTD9L</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-02-06T12:13:29.036347Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 30, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach" }, "other_polity": { "id": 809, "name": "pl_piast_dyn_2", "start_year": 1139, "end_year": 1382, "long_name": "Polish Kingdom - Piast Dynasty Fragmented Period", "new_name": "pl_piast_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "When Bolesław III Wrymouth died on 28 October 1138, he was aware of the potential for conflict among his sons and devised a testament aiming to prevent the fragmentation of the kingdom. His will, known as the Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§, divided Poland among his sons, granting them hereditary duchies while trying to maintain some level of unity under the senioral principle. This principle established that the eldest member of the dynasty, holding the Seniorate Province with Kraków as its capital, would have a primacy over the other dukes and the right to be called the High Duke of Poland. The \"Senioral Principle\" was soon broken, leading to a period of nearly 200 years of disintegration known as feudal fragmentation which divided the Polish state into several semi-independent principalities without a single ruler governed by various branches of the Piast dynasty.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§ \r\nThe reunification of Poland under Władysław I in 14th century marked the end of fragmentation. His son, Casimir III the Great (1333-1370) strengthened royal authority. Casimir's reign, devoid of major external conflicts, allowed for significant internal development, including the founding of the University of Krakow in 1364, one of the oldest universities in Europe.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe end of the Piast dynasty in 1370, with the death of Casimir III, led to the initiation of the Angevin and later Jagiellonian dynasties, under which Poland entered into a union with Lithuania.§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "I expanded the end date of this polity to include the last personal union between Hungary and Poland during Louis I of Hungary's reign.", "created_date": "2024-02-28T14:45:23.434662Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-12T12:00:04.748967Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 25, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 350, "year_from": 1310, "year_to": 1385, "description": "\"[T]he founding of the Hindu kingdom in Vijayanagara in India in 1336 launched a new era for south India and Sri Lanka, By 1385 they claimed sovereignty over the Aryachakravartis [of Jaffna] and may have assisted them to invade the Sinhalese kingdom while Bhuvanekabāhu V was still at Gampola. [...] The Jaffna Kingdom under Pararājasēkaran (1478-1519) was independent after the decline of Vijayanagar, but was much reduced in size and strength.\"", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Supra_polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "polity": { "id": 634, "name": "sl_jaffa_k", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1591, "long_name": "Jaffna", "new_name": "sl_jaffa_k", "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 396, "year_from": 1319, "year_to": 1355, "description": "Magnus IV of Sweden ruled the Kingdom of Norway in personal union from 1319 – 1355. §REF§“Magnus II Eriksson | Facts, Biography, & King of Sweden | Britannica.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7HUNVFB4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7HUNVFB4</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-05-22T17:41:34.395390Z", "modified_date": "2024-05-22T17:41:34.395411Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "polity": { "id": 868, "name": "sv_swedish_k_1", "start_year": 980, "end_year": 1396, "long_name": "Kingdom of Sweden I", "new_name": "sv_swedish_k_1", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": "Swedish Kingdom", "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-04-26T12:08:22.061440Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-30T12:37:04.170914Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 17, "name": "Northern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": null }, "comment": null, "private_comment": null, "other_polity": { "id": 116, "name": "NorKing", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396, "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "new_name": "no_norway_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Norway (also Norwegian Empire or Old Norse <i>Noregsveldi</i>) originally covered the west coast of Norway and was allied with an earldom in Þrándheimur (modern Trøndelag). It then expanded to eastern Norway in the middle of the 11th century CE, around Viken and modern-day Oslo, including Båhuslen in modern Sweden, and northwards to Hålogaland, Lofoten and Finnmark.<br>Orkney and Shetland became part of the kingdom as early as 875, according to legend, and became an earldom. The Faroe Islands became part of the kingdom of Norway in 1035 CE, and the Hebrides and Man in the 12th century. Iceland and Greenland were added to its territory in 1256-64 and 1262 respectively. In 1266, however, Man and the Hebrides became part of the Kingdom of Scotland. The 'peak' of the kingdom was thus in the 1260s. Each part of the kingdom had its own assembly: four in Norway and a separate assembly for each of the islands or archipelagoes in the realm. Here the chieftains gathered yearly to discuss and decide on key matters for each assembly area. The Icelandic, Faroese and Man assemblies still exist.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The kingdom of Norway was originally a composite of kingdoms or earldoms, with the king of Norway a king of kings. Its extent and composition relied in large part on the fortunes of the royal dynasty, with repeated periods of partition by inheritance and reunification. A fully stable dynasty was only established in about 1240, after a long period of civil war. Royal power was instrumental in introducing Christianity to Norway around 1000, and the church was an important prop to royal power thereafter, providing the bureaucratic framework. The orientation of the Norwegian kingdom shifted after 1314, from North Atlantic expansion to an eastern emphasis, participating in intra-Scandinavian power struggles. In 1397 it joined the Kalmar Union, the kingdom covering the whole of the Swedish, Danish and Norwegian realms. From 1523 to 1814 it was a part of the Danish-Norwegian kingdom, and the Danish king was also the Norwegian king. The population reached about 400,000-600,000 in 1350, before the Black Death, but by 1520 repeated epidemics had reduced the population to around 120,000.<br><i>This description was provided by Árni Daniel Júlíusson and edited by Jenny Reddish.</i>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR: changing the end date from 1380 to 1396, taking it to just before the Kalmar Union. Variables need to be checked to see whether they still apply to the 1381-96 period", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-04-30T12:29:11.149067Z", "home_nga": { "id": 3, "name": "Iceland", "subregion": "Northern Europe", "longitude": "-21.891497000000", "latitude": "64.133088000000", "capital_city": "Reykjavik", "nga_code": "IS", "fao_country": "Iceland", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 17, "name": "Northern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 397, "year_from": 1362, "year_to": 1364, "description": "Haakon VI King of Norway ruled the Kingdom of Sweden in personal union from 1362–1364.§REF§Haakon VI Magnusson | Norwegian Royalty, Scandinavian Union, Kalmar Union | Britannica. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PHXQI334\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PHXQI334</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-05-22T17:47:49.711807Z", "modified_date": "2024-05-22T17:47:49.711852Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "NorKing", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396, "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "new_name": "no_norway_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Norway (also Norwegian Empire or Old Norse <i>Noregsveldi</i>) originally covered the west coast of Norway and was allied with an earldom in Þrándheimur (modern Trøndelag). It then expanded to eastern Norway in the middle of the 11th century CE, around Viken and modern-day Oslo, including Båhuslen in modern Sweden, and northwards to Hålogaland, Lofoten and Finnmark.<br>Orkney and Shetland became part of the kingdom as early as 875, according to legend, and became an earldom. The Faroe Islands became part of the kingdom of Norway in 1035 CE, and the Hebrides and Man in the 12th century. Iceland and Greenland were added to its territory in 1256-64 and 1262 respectively. In 1266, however, Man and the Hebrides became part of the Kingdom of Scotland. The 'peak' of the kingdom was thus in the 1260s. Each part of the kingdom had its own assembly: four in Norway and a separate assembly for each of the islands or archipelagoes in the realm. Here the chieftains gathered yearly to discuss and decide on key matters for each assembly area. The Icelandic, Faroese and Man assemblies still exist.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The kingdom of Norway was originally a composite of kingdoms or earldoms, with the king of Norway a king of kings. Its extent and composition relied in large part on the fortunes of the royal dynasty, with repeated periods of partition by inheritance and reunification. A fully stable dynasty was only established in about 1240, after a long period of civil war. Royal power was instrumental in introducing Christianity to Norway around 1000, and the church was an important prop to royal power thereafter, providing the bureaucratic framework. The orientation of the Norwegian kingdom shifted after 1314, from North Atlantic expansion to an eastern emphasis, participating in intra-Scandinavian power struggles. In 1397 it joined the Kalmar Union, the kingdom covering the whole of the Swedish, Danish and Norwegian realms. From 1523 to 1814 it was a part of the Danish-Norwegian kingdom, and the Danish king was also the Norwegian king. The population reached about 400,000-600,000 in 1350, before the Black Death, but by 1520 repeated epidemics had reduced the population to around 120,000.<br><i>This description was provided by Árni Daniel Júlíusson and edited by Jenny Reddish.</i>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR: changing the end date from 1380 to 1396, taking it to just before the Kalmar Union. Variables need to be checked to see whether they still apply to the 1381-96 period", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-04-30T12:29:11.149067Z", "home_nga": { "id": 3, "name": "Iceland", "subregion": "Northern Europe", "longitude": "-21.891497000000", "latitude": "64.133088000000", "capital_city": "Reykjavik", "nga_code": "IS", "fao_country": "Iceland", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 17, "name": "Northern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": null, "other_polity": { "id": 868, "name": "sv_swedish_k_1", "start_year": 980, "end_year": 1396, "long_name": "Kingdom of Sweden I", "new_name": "sv_swedish_k_1", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": "Swedish Kingdom", "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-04-26T12:08:22.061440Z", "modified_date": "2024-04-30T12:37:04.170914Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 17, "name": "Northern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": null }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 401, "year_from": 1370, "year_to": 1382, "description": "Louis I of Hungary, also known as Louis the Great was also crowned king of Poland in 1370 and ruled the kingdom in personal union until his death in 1382.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-06-12T12:01:57.876173Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-12T12:01:57.876186Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "polity": { "id": 809, "name": "pl_piast_dyn_2", "start_year": 1139, "end_year": 1382, "long_name": "Polish Kingdom - Piast Dynasty Fragmented Period", "new_name": "pl_piast_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "When Bolesław III Wrymouth died on 28 October 1138, he was aware of the potential for conflict among his sons and devised a testament aiming to prevent the fragmentation of the kingdom. His will, known as the Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§, divided Poland among his sons, granting them hereditary duchies while trying to maintain some level of unity under the senioral principle. This principle established that the eldest member of the dynasty, holding the Seniorate Province with Kraków as its capital, would have a primacy over the other dukes and the right to be called the High Duke of Poland. The \"Senioral Principle\" was soon broken, leading to a period of nearly 200 years of disintegration known as feudal fragmentation which divided the Polish state into several semi-independent principalities without a single ruler governed by various branches of the Piast dynasty.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§ \r\nThe reunification of Poland under Władysław I in 14th century marked the end of fragmentation. His son, Casimir III the Great (1333-1370) strengthened royal authority. Casimir's reign, devoid of major external conflicts, allowed for significant internal development, including the founding of the University of Krakow in 1364, one of the oldest universities in Europe.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</b></a>§REF§\r\nThe end of the Piast dynasty in 1370, with the death of Casimir III, led to the initiation of the Angevin and later Jagiellonian dynasties, under which Poland entered into a union with Lithuania.§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "I expanded the end date of this polity to include the last personal union between Hungary and Poland during Louis I of Hungary's reign.", "created_date": "2024-02-28T14:45:23.434662Z", "modified_date": "2024-06-12T12:00:04.748967Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 25, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": null, "other_polity": { "id": 811, "name": "hu_later_dyn", "start_year": 1302, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Hungary Kingdom - Anjou and Later Dynasties", "new_name": "hu_later_dyn", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "Following the Árpád dynasty's end, Hungary entered a period marked by the Angevin and Jagiellonian dynasties, leading up to the significant Battle of Mohács in 1526.§REF§László Kontler, Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary (Budapest: Atlantisz, 1999).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSSN8HUW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CSSN8HUW</b></a>§REF§The Angevin kings, notably Charles I and Louis I, expanded Hungary's influence in Central Europe through military campaigns and administrative reforms, enhancing the kingdom's power. The era saw Hungary's involvement in European politics intensify, especially under the rule of Sigismund of Luxembourg, who linked Hungary with Bohemia and Poland, aiming to strengthen royal authority and address external threats, notably from the Ottoman Empire.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9BBKM3AR\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR</b></a>§REF§ The period was characterized by dynastic changes, efforts towards centralization, and significant cultural developments, yet it also faced challenges such as internal strife and the looming threat of Ottoman conquest. This era concluded with the devastating defeat at Mohács,§REF§ Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Alan Masters, eds., Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, Facts on File library of world history (New York, NY: Facts On File, 2009).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJPGPVLD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KJPGPVLD</b></a>§REF§ leading to Hungary's fragmentation and marking the end of medieval Hungarian sovereignty.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-03-01T11:47:44.608679Z", "modified_date": "2024-03-11T12:59:02.413834Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 400, "year_from": 1380, "year_to": 1385, "description": "In 1380, Olaf II inherited the Norwegian throne from his father, King Haakon VI, while already being King of Denmark, thus creating a personal union between Denmark and Norway. After Olaf's death in 1387, Margaret I ruled both kingdoms, continuing the union.§REF§Esben Albrectsen, ed., Danmark-Norge. 1: Fællesskabet bliver til / af Esben Albrectsen (Oslo: Univ.Forl, 1997).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M2X6XWB5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: M2X6XWB5</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-05-24T20:01:08.060612Z", "modified_date": "2024-05-24T20:01:08.060636Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "polity": { "id": 873, "name": "dk_danish_k", "start_year": 936, "end_year": 1396, "long_name": "Kingdom of Denmark - Medieval", "new_name": "dk_danish_k", "polity_tag": "OTHER_TAG", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": "Kingdom of Denmark, Margaret of Denmark", "private_comment": "", "created_date": "2024-05-02T14:44:48.543124Z", "modified_date": "2024-05-02T14:44:48.543137Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 17, "name": "Northern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": null }, "comment": null, "private_comment": null, "other_polity": { "id": 116, "name": "NorKing", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396, "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "new_name": "no_norway_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Norway (also Norwegian Empire or Old Norse <i>Noregsveldi</i>) originally covered the west coast of Norway and was allied with an earldom in Þrándheimur (modern Trøndelag). It then expanded to eastern Norway in the middle of the 11th century CE, around Viken and modern-day Oslo, including Båhuslen in modern Sweden, and northwards to Hålogaland, Lofoten and Finnmark.<br>Orkney and Shetland became part of the kingdom as early as 875, according to legend, and became an earldom. The Faroe Islands became part of the kingdom of Norway in 1035 CE, and the Hebrides and Man in the 12th century. Iceland and Greenland were added to its territory in 1256-64 and 1262 respectively. In 1266, however, Man and the Hebrides became part of the Kingdom of Scotland. The 'peak' of the kingdom was thus in the 1260s. Each part of the kingdom had its own assembly: four in Norway and a separate assembly for each of the islands or archipelagoes in the realm. Here the chieftains gathered yearly to discuss and decide on key matters for each assembly area. The Icelandic, Faroese and Man assemblies still exist.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The kingdom of Norway was originally a composite of kingdoms or earldoms, with the king of Norway a king of kings. Its extent and composition relied in large part on the fortunes of the royal dynasty, with repeated periods of partition by inheritance and reunification. A fully stable dynasty was only established in about 1240, after a long period of civil war. Royal power was instrumental in introducing Christianity to Norway around 1000, and the church was an important prop to royal power thereafter, providing the bureaucratic framework. The orientation of the Norwegian kingdom shifted after 1314, from North Atlantic expansion to an eastern emphasis, participating in intra-Scandinavian power struggles. In 1397 it joined the Kalmar Union, the kingdom covering the whole of the Swedish, Danish and Norwegian realms. From 1523 to 1814 it was a part of the Danish-Norwegian kingdom, and the Danish king was also the Norwegian king. The population reached about 400,000-600,000 in 1350, before the Black Death, but by 1520 repeated epidemics had reduced the population to around 120,000.<br><i>This description was provided by Árni Daniel Júlíusson and edited by Jenny Reddish.</i>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "JR: changing the end date from 1380 to 1396, taking it to just before the Kalmar Union. Variables need to be checked to see whether they still apply to the 1381-96 period", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-04-30T12:29:11.149067Z", "home_nga": { "id": 3, "name": "Iceland", "subregion": "Northern Europe", "longitude": "-21.891497000000", "latitude": "64.133088000000", "capital_city": "Reykjavik", "nga_code": "IS", "fao_country": "Iceland", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 17, "name": "Northern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 351, "year_from": 1385, "year_to": 1500, "description": "\"[T]he founding of the Hindu kingdom in Vijayanagara in India in 1336 launched a new era for south India and Sri Lanka, By 1385 they claimed sovereignty over the Aryachakravartis [of Jaffna] and may have assisted them to invade the Sinhalese kingdom while Bhuvanekabāhu V was still at Gampola. [...] The Jaffna Kingdom under Pararājasēkaran (1478-1519) was independent after the decline of Vijayanagar, but was much reduced in size and strength.\"", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Supra_polity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "vassalage", "polity": { "id": 634, "name": "sl_jaffa_k", "start_year": 1310, "end_year": 1591, "long_name": "Jaffna", "new_name": "sl_jaffa_k", "polity_tag": "POL_SA_SI", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 40, "name": "Southern South Asia", "subregions_list": "Southern India and Sri Lanka", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "other_polity": null, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }