Polity Scale Of Supracultural Interaction List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Scales of Supracultural Interaction.
GET /api/general/polity-scale-of-supracultural-interactions/?ordering=-id
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Paideuma, 25, 117–143: 124. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/K2EIJVZ8/collection§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Scale_of_supracultural_interaction", "scale_from": 3500, "scale_to": 3500, "polity": { "id": 668, "name": "ni_nri_k", "start_year": 1043, "end_year": 1911, "long_name": "Ọ̀ràézè Ǹrì", "new_name": "ni_nri_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 131, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "km squared.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 8500000, "scale_to": 8500000, "polity": { "id": 370, "name": "UzTimur", "start_year": 1370, "end_year": 1526, "long_name": "Timurid Empire", "new_name": "uz_timurid_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Timurid Emirate was a polity begun by Timur who was initially an amir within the Chagatai Khanate. §REF§ (Wise Bauer 2013, 558) Wise Bauer, S. 2013. The History of the Renaissance World: From the Rediscovery of Aristotle to the Conquest of Constantinople. W. W. Norton & Company. §REF§ After taking power at Balkh in 1370 Timur maintained a nominal allegiance to the Chagatai khan while effectively ruling as an independent state. §REF§ (Khan 2003, 33) A Khan. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group. §REF§ <br>Timur's brutal conquests over Persia and the sub-continent created a large empire covering about 5,500,000 square kilometers with a population of perhaps 49 million in 1400 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978) Collin McEverdy. Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. §REF§ In his desire to create a great empire, during his conquests Timur \"rounded up craftspeople in all fields and sent them off to his capital at Samarkand. ... He assembled the most highly skilled manpower from many countries and traditions, an astonishingly rich assemblage of masters in virtually every field of the arts and crafts.\" §REF§ (Starr 2013) Frederick S. Starr. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ <br>Timurid government was a complex Persian-model professional bureaucracy which functionally distinguished between civilian and military branches of government. §REF§ (Subtelny 2007, 68) Maria Subtelny. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL. §REF§ The ruler was assisted by a vizier §REF§ (Starr 2013) Frederick S. Starr. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ who often stayed in his post after the previous Timurid amir had died. §REF§ (Subtelny 2007, 69) Maria Subtelny. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL. §REF§ The non-sedentary origin and culture of the rulers might be reflected in the departments of the Timurid diwan which were \"concerned primarily with financial and bureaucratic matters, including chancery correspondence.\" §REF§ (Subtelny 2007, 68) Maria Subtelny. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL. §REF§ <br>In the regions \"Timur was notably lax at establishing effective and loyal governments ... conquered lands had their own governing bodies ... he was content to leave them be.\" §REF§ (Starr 2013) Frederick S. Starr. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ However, (presumably closer to the center of the polity in Central Asia) there was governor or mayor called darugha §REF§ (Marozzi 2004, 141) J Marozzi. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London. §REF§ who owed his authority directly to the Timurid amir. §REF§ (Marozzi 2004, 205) J Marozzi. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London. §REF§ Timur's descendants divided some of the Timurid territories into provinces, including Samarkand and Bukhara. §REF§ (Khan 2003, 35) A Khan. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group. §REF§ <br>Uzbek nomads eventually conquered the feuding provinces of the Timurid Empire. §REF§ (Khan 2003, 35) A Khan. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 130, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "km squared.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 500000, "scale_to": 500000, "polity": { "id": 468, "name": "UzSogdi", "start_year": 604, "end_year": 711, "long_name": "Sogdiana - City-States Period", "new_name": "uz_sogdiana_city_states", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "General description:<br>The Sogdian City States Period, also referred to by the names of the principal cities of the age, Bukhara and Samarkand dates to between 604 and 711CE. The period ends with the conquest of the region by the Umayyad Dynasty.§REF§(Marshak 1996, 242) Marshak, B. I. 1996. ‘Sughd and Adjacent Regions’. In B. A. Litvinsky (ed.), Co-editors: Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Volume III. Paris: UNESCO. p.242<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD</a> §REF§<br>A number of City States rose to prominence in the Zarafshan and surrounding valleys, they formed alliances and competed amongst each other for control of the region .§REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 167) De la Vaissière, E. 2005. Sogdian Traders: a History. Translated by James Ward. Leiden; Boston: Brill. p.167 <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D</a> §REF§ Chef amongst these City States was Samarkand, which in the seventh century extended across the plateau of Afrasiab.§REF§(Marshak 1996, 244) Marshak, B. I. 1996. ‘Sughd and Adjacent Regions’. In B. A. Litvinsky (ed.), Co-editors: Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Volume III. Paris: UNESCO. p.244<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD</a> §REF§<br>The height of this period can be considered to have occurred in mid the 7th century CE when the city of Samarkand was at the peak of its economic and culture production, symbolized by the creation of the Afrasiab paintings. §REF§(Frumkin 1970, 124) Frumkin, G. 1970. Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia. Leiden;Koln. Brill. p.124 <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/48WCJTCC\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/48WCJTCC</a> §REF§<br>Although the City States had achieved de facto independence after the fall of the Western Kaghanate, they were nominally allied to the Chinese T’ang dynasty, however the dynasty did not meaningfully hinder the Arab incursions.§REF§(Marshak 1996, 242) Marshak, B. I. 1996. ‘Sughd and Adjacent Regions’. In B. A. Litvinsky (ed.), Co-editors: Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Volume III. Paris: UNESCO. p.242<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD</a> §REF§<br>Population and political organization:<br>Each city state was ruled by a king, conceived of as ‘first among equals’ who headed the administrative system which ran the state.§REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 167) De la Vaissière, E. 2005. Sogdian Traders: a History. Translated by James Ward. Leiden; Boston: Brill.p.167 <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D</a> §REF§ While there is clear evidence of a strong merchant class their relationship to the ruling elite remains unclear. §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 168-169) De la Vaissière, E. 2005. Sogdian Traders: a History. Translated by James Ward. Leiden; Boston: Brill. pp.168-169 <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D</a> §REF§<br>Although there are no precise population figures the archaeological evidence indicates that the number of settlements, and thus population, in the region reached its height during this period.§REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 103-4) De La Vaissiere, Etienne. 2005. Sogdian Traders: A History. [trans James Ward] Leiden: Brill.p.103-4 <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 129, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "km squared.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 2750000, "scale_to": 2750000, "polity": { "id": 287, "name": "UzSamnd", "start_year": 819, "end_year": 999, "long_name": "Samanid Empire", "new_name": "uz_samanid_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Samanids were a Persian-Sassanid family who had converted to Islam after the Umayyad conquests. During the caliphate of the Abbasid ruler al-Ma'mun (813-833 CE) they were perceived to be loyal enough to be named hereditary governors of Samarqand, Farghana, and Herat §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 99) Lapidus, Ira M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ where they were able to mint bronze coins in their own names, raise armies and campaign against neighbouring powers. §REF§ (Negmatov 1997, 84) Negmatov, N N. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO. §REF§ <br>The structure of the Samanid state \"was in reality a conglomeration of great urban complexes, each with its own local dynasty, traditional elite, and economic and cultural particularities\" §REF§ (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ but this should not disguise the importance of the strong central government institutions which grew in step with the increasing urbanization of the region. §REF§ (Frye 1975, 153) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ The Population of the largest cities, such as Nishapur, at this time may have exceeded 100,000 people.<br>The Samanid system of government was modelled on the caliph's court in Baghdad with central and provincial divisions. §REF§ (Frye 1975, 143) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ The head of state, Amir, was assisted by a vizier and many heads of departments who included a vazir (Prime Minister, not to be confused with the vizier), treasurer, chiefs of police and justice, postmaster, among others. §REF§ (Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ The \"central bureaucracy was matched by a similar organization in the provincial capitals, but on a smaller scale\" which reported to the central authorities. §REF§ (Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ The Samanid Amir appointed local governors or maintained relations with local hereditary rulers. §REF§ (Frye 1975, 143) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ <br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 128, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "km squared.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 11000000, "scale_to": 11000000, "polity": { "id": 296, "name": "UzChagt", "start_year": 1263, "end_year": 1402, "long_name": "Chagatai Khanate", "new_name": "uz_chagatai_khanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "\"Under Kebeg's successor Tarmashirin Khan (1326-1334) the khan's more conservative and nomadic followers rebelled against his policy of assimilation with the settled population, and deposed the khan. In the disturbances which followed Tarmashirin's downfall the Chaghadayid khanate split into two parts; the western section, Transoxiana, became known as the Ulus Chaghatay, and the eastern section as Moghulistan.5\" §REF§ (Forbes Manz 1983, 82) §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 127, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "km squared. Cultural diffusion. Number refers to the estimated area of the Middle Mississippi region (taken from the map).", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 125000, "scale_to": 150000, "polity": { "id": 28, "name": "USMisSd", "start_year": 1275, "end_year": 1400, "long_name": "Cahokia - Sand Prairie", "new_name": "us_cahokia_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Sand Prairie phase is the name given by archaeologists to the period between around 1275 and 1400 CE in the American Bottom region, the portion of the floodplain of the Mississippi now located in southwestern Illinois. §REF§ (Kelly et al. 1984, 130) Kelly, John E., Steven J. Ozuk, Douglas K. Jackson, Dale L. McElrath, Fred A. Finney, and Duane Esarey. 1984. \"Emergent Mississippian Period.\" In American Bottom Archaeology: A Summary of the FAI-270 Project Contribution to the Culture History of the Mississippi River Valley, edited by Charles L. Bareis and James W. Porter, 128-57. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2UP556X5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2UP556X5</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Hall 2000, 13) Hall, Robert L. 2000. \"Cahokia Identity and Interaction Models of Cahokia Mississippian.\" In Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest, edited by Thomas E. Emerson and R. Barry Lewis, 3-34. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WNR98AWH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WNR98AWH</a>. §REF§ This period is considered the final phase of the Mississippian culture. §REF§ (Milner 1986, 234) Milner, George R. 1986. \"Mississippian Period Population Density in a Segment of the Central Mississippi River Valley.\" American Antiquity 51 (2): 227-38. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S</a>. §REF§ The chronology is not universally agreed upon, however: the dates given by different scholars for the Sand Prairie phase vary. §REF§ (Hall 2000, 13) Hall, Robert L. 2000. \"Cahokia Identity and Interaction Models of Cahokia Mississippian.\" In Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest, edited by Thomas E. Emerson and R. Barry Lewis, 3-34. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WNR98AWH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WNR98AWH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Sand Prairie phase was one of decreasing social complexity and depopulation at the site of Cahokia and on the surrounding Middle Mississippi floodplain. §REF§ (Emerson 1997, 6, 53) Emerson, Thomas E. 1997. Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74</a>. §REF§ Already by 1150 CE, archaeological evidence indicates that the political and ceremonial ties binding the site of Cahokia and its elite to its hinterland were weakening, and by 1350, there are very few signs of culturally Mississippian populations left in the American Bottom. §REF§ (Pauketat and Bernard 2004, 38-39) Pauketat, Timothy, and Nancy Stone Bernard. 2004. Cahokia Mounds. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MH4W8AV5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MH4W8AV5</a>. §REF§ During the Sand Prairie phase, Mississippians seem to have abandoned the old monumental sites and dispersed out of the river valley into the uplands. §REF§ (Emerson 1997, 53) Emerson, Thomas E. 1997. Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74</a>. §REF§ The evidence for political hierarchies and inherited status distinctions is much weaker than for previous periods, and community activity may have revolved around funerary rites at rural cemeteries. §REF§ (Emerson 1997, 180) Emerson, Thomas E. 1997. Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74</a>. §REF§ <br>The population of the site of Cahokia and the surrounding Mississippi floodplain reached its lowest point for several centuries during this period. §REF§ (Milner 1986, 227) Milner, George R. 1986. \"Mississippian Period Population Density in a Segment of the Central Mississippi River Valley.\" American Antiquity 51 (2): 227-38. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Pauketat and Lopinot 1997, 120) Pauketat, Timothy R., and Neal H. Lopinot. 1997. \"Cahokian Population Dynamics.\" In Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World, edited by Timothy R. Pauketat and Thomas E. Emerson, 103-23. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. §REF§ Concrete population estimates are difficult to find, but archaeologist George Milner has estimated a Sand Prairie-period population density of between one and seven people per square kilometre for a stretch of the Mississippi floodplain just south of Cahokia. §REF§ (Milner 1986, 227) Milner, George R. 1986. \"Mississippian Period Population Density in a Segment of the Central Mississippi River Valley.\" American Antiquity 51 (2): 227-38. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 28, "name": "Cahokia", "subregion": "Mississippi Basin", "longitude": "-90.062035000000", "latitude": "38.658938000000", "capital_city": "St. Louis", "nga_code": "USMO", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 24, "name": "Mississippi Basin", "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 126, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "km squared. Cultural diffusion. Number refers to the estimated area of the Middle Mississippi region (taken from the map).", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 125000, "scale_to": 150000, "polity": { "id": 33, "name": "USCahoL", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1274, "long_name": "Cahokia - Moorehead", "new_name": "us_cahokia_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Generations of archaeologists have been amazed that at the geographical location of Cahokia there were \"almost no inhabitants' until 1000 CE. §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 20) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ Suddenly there was an influx of people of more than one group §REF§ (Peregrine/Iseminger 2014, 27) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ - the \"population surges by at least an order of magnitude within decades\" §REF§ (Peregrine 2014) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ - bringing with them to this heretofore vacant spot a new social and settlement structure and an obsession with moundbuilding. §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ Almost equally puzzling, the society came to an abrupt end with a migration away around 1250 CE. §REF§ (Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 24) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ <br>The fall of Cahokia probably occurred across the whole of the 1200-1275 CE period. Milner estimates that by the Morehead phase the Cahokia (city) population had fallen about 40% from the Lohmann peak. §REF§ (Milner 2006, 124) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ The settlement pattern was still of nucleated clusters of houses §REF§ (Milner 2006, 100) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ between which were structures \"with special ritual and social significance.\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 101) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ At its height about 15,000 lived in an area called the 'central administrative complex'. §REF§ (Pauketat 2014, 15) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ <br>Many archaeologists are skeptical whether there was a ruler king at Cahokia §REF§ (Iseminger 2014, 26) W R Iseminger. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston. §REF§ the polity more likely led by a \"a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests\" §REF§ (Peregrine 2014, 31) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ within a social strata that included included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§ (Iseminger 2014, 26) W R Iseminger. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston. §REF§ Whilst most Cahokians were self-sufficient granaries were also present. §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 20) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ The Cahokians were capable of feats of organization that included the famous Monks Mound and other mounds which required moving 1.1 million m3 or earth and a 15m high wooden palisade that ran for nearly 3km. §REF§ (Milner 2006, 148) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ <br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 28, "name": "Cahokia", "subregion": "Mississippi Basin", "longitude": "-90.062035000000", "latitude": "38.658938000000", "capital_city": "St. Louis", "nga_code": "USMO", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 24, "name": "Mississippi Basin", "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 125, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "km squared. Cultural diffusion. Number refers to the estimated area of the Middle Mississippi region (taken from the map).", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 125000, "scale_to": 150000, "polity": { "id": 32, "name": "USCahoE", "start_year": 1055, "end_year": 1199, "long_name": "Cahokia - Lohman-Stirling", "new_name": "us_cahokia_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Generations of archaeologists have been amazed that the geographical location of Cahokia had \"almost no inhabitants' until 1000 CE. §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 20) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ Suddenly there was an influx of people of more than one group §REF§ (Peregrine/Iseminger 2014, 27) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ - the \"population surges by at least an order of magnitude within decades\" §REF§ (Peregrine 2014) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ - bringing with them to this heretofore vacant spot a new social and settlement structure and an obsession with moundbuilding. §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ Bill Romaine (2009) has noted, based on lunar alignments used at Cahokia, there were cultural similarities to a Toltec site in Arkansas. §REF§ (Peregrine/Pauketat 2014, 28) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ <br>The period of 1000-1150 CE is thus one of great change and demographic expansion. The previous settlement pattern of nucleated clusters of houses \"was abandoned in favor of widely scattered single-family farmsteads\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 100) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ between which were structures \"with special ritual and social significance.\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 101) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ Whilst most Cahokians were self-sufficient granaries were also present. §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 20) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ There were likely at least 50,000 people supported within the the 2000 Km2 region of 'greater Cahokia' §REF§ (Pauketat 2014, 15) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ of which about 15,000 lived in an area called the 'central administrative complex'. §REF§ (Pauketat 2014, 15) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ <br>Many archaeologists are skeptical whether there was a ruler king at Cahokia §REF§ (Iseminger 2014, 26) W R Iseminger. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston. §REF§ the polity more likely led by a \"a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests\" §REF§ (Peregrine 2014, 31) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ within a social strata that included included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries.\" §REF§ (Iseminger 2014, 26) W R Iseminger. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston. §REF§ The Cahokians were capable of feats of organization that included the famous Monks Mound and other mounds which required moving 1.1 million m3 or earth and a 15m high wooden palisade that ran for nearly 3km. §REF§ (Milner 2006, 148) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ <br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 28, "name": "Cahokia", "subregion": "Mississippi Basin", "longitude": "-90.062035000000", "latitude": "38.658938000000", "capital_city": "St. Louis", "nga_code": "USMO", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 24, "name": "Mississippi Basin", "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 124, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " km^2 Very rough area of Roman Empire, plus extra territory where Roman 'cultural influence' felt", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 17000000, "scale_to": 17000000, "polity": { "id": 71, "name": "TrRomDm", "start_year": 285, "end_year": 394, "long_name": "Roman Empire - Dominate", "new_name": "tr_roman_dominate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Roman Principate is generally regarded as ending during or just after the crisis of the 3rd century CE (235-284 CE). The date of 284 CE marks the accession of Diocletian §REF§ (Boatwright et al. 2012, 438) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. <i>The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire</i>. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§ and the period includes the Constantinian Dynasty (305-363 CE), Valentinian Dynasty (364-378 CE) and the early part of the Theodosian dynasty (379-457 CE). According to the historian David Baker, the 'Eastern Empire enjoyed an expansion phase c. 285-450'. §REF§ (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. 'The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory'. <i>Cliodynamics</i> 2 (2): 217-51. §REF§ The period ends after the reign of Theodosius, the last emperor to rule over both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire. §REF§ (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. <i>The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East</i>. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§ <br>Near the end of the 3rd century, beginning at the end of the Severan Dynasty, the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes, including the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain and suffered several significant losses in battle to the Sassanids. Under first the Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) then Diocletian (r. 284-305), all territory was recovered and a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire, which we refer to as the Dominate (denoting the increasing centralization of authority and the development of a large bureaucratic apparatus). This period saw notably the increasing popularization of Christianity, culminating in its acceptance as the official state religion under the Emperor Theodosius at the end of the period. The late 3rd century also saw the Empire split into two distinct administrative halves: a Western half, with its capital at Rome, and an Eastern one, ruled first from Nicomedia in Anatolia and then from Byzantium (re-founded as Constantinople, modern-day Istanbul, by the Emperor Constantine I the Great in 330 CE). Each half was ruled by a different emperor along with a junior colleague, titled 'Caesar'. This arrangement is known as the Tetrarchy ('rule of four'), which lasted until Constantine I managed to once again rule both halves together. The Empire was divided a few more times, until Theodosius (r. 379-392 CE) united it for the final time. In 393, Theodosius once more divided the Empire, naming Arcadius Emperor in the East and Honorius Emperor in the West. This marks the end of the Dominate period, leading to a period of instability and, ultimately, the collapse of the Roman state in the west, yet recovery and the continuation of Roman rule in the east (which became known as the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople's original name).<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Dominate period, the power centre of the Roman Empire shifted decisively away from Rome and Italy, beset by decades of crisis and civil infighting, to Anatolia; specifically, to the old Greek city of Byzantium that was re-founded and glorified by the Emperor Constantine I. Before this, Diocletian brought stability back to the Empire after the crises of the 3rd century CE by inaugurating a series of administrative and economic reforms. Although most offices and institutions of the preceding Principate period were retained, Diocletian increased the number of provinces, adding more governors and provincial officials who reported directly to the emperor, and further split the empire into two halves to aid in the administration of such a vast and diverse territory. §REF§ (Black 2008, 181) Jeremy Black. 2008. <i>World History Atlas</i>. London: Dorling Kindersley. §REF§ §REF§ (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. <i>The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The early Dominate is known for the decline of autonomy, prestige, and power of Rome's provincial elite and the concomitant rapid increase in the power of the central bureaucracy. §REF§ (Loewenstein 1973, 238) Karl Loewenstein. 1973. <i>The Governance of Rome</i>. The Hague: Martin Nijhoff. §REF§ §REF§ (Eich 2005) Peter Eich. 2005. <i>Zur Metamorphose des politischen Systems in der römischen Kaiserzeit: Die Entstehung einer \"personalen Bürokratie\" im langen dritten Jahrhundert</i>. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. §REF§ §REF§ (Eich 2015) Peter Eich. 2015. 'The Common Denominator: Late Roman Imperial Bureaucracy from a Comparative Perspective', in <i>State Power in Ancient China and Rome</i>, edited by Walter Scheidel, 90-149. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>When Constantine I established Constantinople as the capital in 330 CE, he furnished the city with a palace, hippodrome, and a great imperial bureaucracy. In terms of personnel the administration in Constantinople reached its largest extent in the 4th century with 'somewhat over thirty thousand functionaries'. §REF§ (Lendon 1997, 3) J. E. Lendon. 1997. <i>Empire of Honour: The Art of Government in the Roman World</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Constantine was the first emperor to vigorously promote Christian religion and his patronage of the Christian church laid the foundations of a Christian empire. 'He built grand churches at the sacred loci of Christianity, including churches celebrating Christ's birth, baptism, and resurrection and Peter's death in Rome. ... Constantine's successors would continue this pattern. Many churches would become quite wealthy. Their clergy were exempt from taxation and other onerous obligations like labor.' §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 20) Kevin Madigan. 2015. <i>Medieval Christianity: A New History</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ <br>The Empire, creaking under its vast territory of 4.5 million square kilometres, supported a population of up to 70 million people. Rome had lost population from its peak under the Principate, probably supporting around 800,000 in 300 CE and around 500,000 by the beginning of the 5th century. Constantinople also had slightly under 500,000 inhabitants, though it developed rapidly under the patronage of Constantine I and his successors and became the new centre of literacy and culture in the Roman world - rivalling, if not surpassing, Rome herself. §REF§ (Lee 2013, 76) A. D. Lee. 2013. <i>From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-10-23T16:18:53.388454Z", "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 123, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " km squared. Figure includes Anatolia, Transoxania, Persia, West Eurasian Steppe.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "scale_of_supra-cultural_interaction", "scale_from": 4500000, "scale_to": 5000000, "polity": { "id": 175, "name": "TrOttm3", "start_year": 1517, "end_year": 1683, "long_name": "Ottoman Empire II", "new_name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "In the 15th century CE, the Turkic Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II conquered Constantinople, took from the last vestiges of the defeated Roman Empire the famous title 'caesar', and added to it the grandiose title 'ruler of the two continents and the two seas'. §REF§ (Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 18) Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert. 1997. 'General Introduction', in <i>An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Volume One: 1300-1600</i>, edited by Halil Inalcik with Donald Quataert, 1-8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, it was Suleiman I (1520-1566 CE) who earned his sobriquets 'the Magnificent' and 'the Lawgiver' when he reformed the Ottoman system of government, codified Ottoman secular law, and extended the Ottoman Empire into Europe as far as Vienna.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Ottoman Empire was a hereditary dynasty under the rule of an Ottoman Sultan. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 87) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The Ottoman 'slave-elite' differed from that of the Mamluk Sultanate in that the Ottoman slaves could never achieve the position of sultan, which remained the hereditary property of the Osman dynasty. With its capital in Istanbul, the main organ of state power was the 'elaborate court, palace, and household government'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Policy-making was weakly institutionalized: in theory, all decisions were made by the sultan himself, and so Ottoman policies were shaped by the sultan's personal character and by the 'individuals or factions who had his ear'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The sultans appointed their own staff and paid them with a wage or (increasingly after 1600 CE) a fief. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 171) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ State funding came in large part from money raised by fief holders until Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha Kulliyesi (in office from 1718 CE) introduced a property tax. §REF§ (Palmer 1992, 33-34) Alan Palmer. 1992. <i>The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire</i>. London: John Murray. §REF§ <br>The administrative and military officials around the sultan were slaves educated in palace schools. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 10) David Nicolle. 1983. <i>Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ The source of this non-Turkish administrative class was the <i>devsirme</i> tribute, which began in 1438 CE; by the 16th century about 1,000 boys were taken per year per recruiting province in the Balkans and non-Muslim communities in Anatolia. The system divided these slaves into those who would serve the bureaucracy and those who would form the elite military corps known as janissaries. In 1582 CE, recruits of non-devsirme origin, including free Muslims, were permitted to join the janissaries and after 1648 CE the devsirme system was no longer used to recruit for the janissaries. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 9-11, 20) David Nicolle. 1983. <i>Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ The imperial household together with its armies and administrative officials was truly vast, numbering about 100,000 people by the 17th century. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The renowned Ottoman architect Sinan was a tribute slave; he notably designed the Sehzade and Süleyman <i>külliyes</i> (complexes of buildings including mosques and mausoleums) and the Selim Mosque at Edirne (1569-1575 CE), with its four 83-metre-high minarets. §REF§ (TheOttomans.org 2002) TheOttomans.org. 2002. 'Architecture'. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.theottomans.org/english/art_culture/architec.asp\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.theottomans.org/english/art_culture/architec.asp</a>, accessed 3 April 2017. §REF§ §REF§ (Freely 2011, 15, 29, 215, 269) John Freely. 2011. <i>A History of Ottoman Architecture</i>. Southampton: WIT Press. §REF§ <br>Ottoman sultans issued decrees through an imperial council (<i>divan</i>) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ and the chief executive power below the sultan, the grand vizier. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Although certain regions (Egypt, for example) may have differed slightly in their governing structure, Ottoman regional government typically involved governors (<i>beylerbeyi</i>) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177-78) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ whose provinces were split into districts (<i>sanjaks</i>) under district governors (<i>sanjak beyi</i>). §REF§ (Imber 2002, 184) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The sanjak beyi also was a military commander. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 189) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Fief-holding soldiers were responsible for local law and order within their districts. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 194) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ By the late 16th century, the lowest level of this system had transformed into a system of tax farms or fiefs given to non-military administrators. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 209, 215) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In 1695 CE, these tax farms were 'sold as life tenures (<i>malikane</i>)', and later shares in tax farms were sold to the public. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 473) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Ottoman law was divided into religious - Islamic sharia - and secular <i>kanun</i> law. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Kanun law essentially served to fill the gaps left by the religious legal tradition, regulating 'areas where the provisions of the sacred law were either missing or too much at at odds with reality to be applicable'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In the Ottoman Empire, this included aspects of criminal law, land tenure and taxation; kanun law drew its legitimacy from precedent and custom. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Military judges (<i>kadi'asker</i>) were the heads of the empire's judiciary and heard cases brought before the imperial council. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 157) Colin Imber. 2002. <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ <br>Ottoman Anatolia further enhanced many aspects of Byzantine culture. In 1331, in an attempt to spread Islam to new territories, Iranian and Egyptian scholars were brought to Iznik in northwestern Anatolia to teach at the first Ottoman college. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 440) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Palace schools were created to train the next generation of Ottoman officials. During the 15th and 16th centuries CE, about 500 libraries were built by sultans and high Ottoman dignitaries. These were maintained by <i>waqf</i> religious foundations; the majority in Istanbul, Bursa and Erdine. Initially, these were <i>madrassa</i> libraries and specialist libraries, but the first independent Ottoman <i>waqf</i> libraries were founded by the Koprulu family in 1678 CE. §REF§ (Agoston and Masters 2009, 333-34) Gabor Agoston and Bruce Masters. 2009. <i>Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ <br>The Ottoman postal system (<i>ulak</i>) structured around postal stations (similar to the Mongol <i>yam</i>) §REF§ (Królikowska 2013, 59) Natalia Królikowska. 2013. 'Sovereignty and Subordination in Crimean-Ottoman Relations (Sixteenth-Eighteenth Centuries)', in <i>The European Tributary States of the Ottoman Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries</i>, edited by Gábor Kármán and Lovro Kunčević, 43-66. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ spanned an empire of 5.2 million square kilometres at its greatest extent, §REF§ (Turchin, Adams and Hall 2006) Peter Turchin, Jonathan M. Adams and Thomas D. Hall. 2006. 'East-West Orientation of Historical Empires'. <i>Journal of World-Systems Research</i> 12 (2): 219-29. §REF§ with a population of approximately 28 million people in 1600 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 137) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ Istanbul likely had a population of at least 650,000 in 1600 CE. §REF§ (Bairoch 1988, 378) Paul Bairoch. 1988. <i>Cities and Economic Development: From the Dawn of History to the Present</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }