British Empire II

Inhabitants.
"Table of the Towns of the British Isles, above 100,000 inhabitants, in 1871." London: 3,254,260 ^[1]
Colquhoun says 900,000 in 1801. ^[2]
4.5 million in 1901 CE ^[3]

[1]: (Bartholomew 1877, vii) John Bartholomew. 1877. Atlas of the British empire throughout the world. George Philip and Son. London.

[2]: Page 27. Patrick Colquhoun, A Treatise on the Wealth, Power and Resources of the British Empire (London: Joseph Mawman), 1814.

[3]: Census of the British Empire, 1901: Report with Summary and Detailed Tables for the Several Colonies, &c. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1906.

Inhabitants.
"Table of the Towns of the British Isles, above 100,000 inhabitants, in 1871." London: 3,254,260 ^[1]
Colquhoun says 900,000 in 1801. ^[2]
4.5 million in 1901 CE ^[3]

[1]: (Bartholomew 1877, vii) John Bartholomew. 1877. Atlas of the British empire throughout the world. George Philip and Son. London.

[2]: Page 27. Patrick Colquhoun, A Treatise on the Wealth, Power and Resources of the British Empire (London: Joseph Mawman), 1814.

[3]: Census of the British Empire, 1901: Report with Summary and Detailed Tables for the Several Colonies, &c. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1906.

Inhabitants.
"Table of the Towns of the British Isles, above 100,000 inhabitants, in 1871." London: 3,254,260 ^[1]
Colquhoun says 900,000 in 1801. ^[2]
4.5 million in 1901 CE ^[3]

[1]: (Bartholomew 1877, vii) John Bartholomew. 1877. Atlas of the British empire throughout the world. George Philip and Son. London.

[2]: Page 27. Patrick Colquhoun, A Treatise on the Wealth, Power and Resources of the British Empire (London: Joseph Mawman), 1814.

[3]: Census of the British Empire, 1901: Report with Summary and Detailed Tables for the Several Colonies, &c. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1906.

in squared kilometers
1800 CE: Parliament approves legislation uniting Great Britain and Ireland as a single state." ^[1] 1900 CE: 30.8 million km2 in 1901 ^[2]
In 1877? CE according to contemporary literature: Area: 8,754,793 square miles. Population: 284,110,693. ^[3] 22,674,810 km2.
"Table of the British Possessions throughout the World, with their Population and Area in English Square Miles." Table has data for all of these locations: Europe (British Islands, Gibraltar, Heligoland, Malta and Gozo); Asia (India, including Depedent States, Celon, Andaman Islands, Straits Settlements, Aden, Hong Kong, Labuan Island, Perim Island); Africa (Gambia River, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Lagos, Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal, Mauritius and Depedencies, Socotra, Ascension Island, St. Helena Island, Tristan d’Acunha); North America (Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland, British Honduras or Belize, West India Islands, Bermuda Islands); South America (British Guiana, Falkland Islands); Oceania (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Northern Territory, Western Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand and Chatham Islands, Fiji Islands). ^[4]

[1]: Kenneth J Panton. 2015. Historical Dictionary of the British Empire. Rowman & Littlefield. Lanham.

[2]: Census of the British Empire, 1901: Report with Summary and Detailed Tables for the Several Colonies, &c. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1906.

[3]: (Bartholomew 1877, v) John Bartholomew. 1877. Atlas of the British empire throughout the world. George Philip and Son. London.

[4]: (Bartholomew 1877, vi) John Bartholomew. 1877. Atlas of the British empire throughout the world. George Philip and Son. London.

in squared kilometers
1800 CE: Parliament approves legislation uniting Great Britain and Ireland as a single state." ^[1] 1900 CE: 30.8 million km2 in 1901 ^[2]
In 1877? CE according to contemporary literature: Area: 8,754,793 square miles. Population: 284,110,693. ^[3] 22,674,810 km2.
"Table of the British Possessions throughout the World, with their Population and Area in English Square Miles." Table has data for all of these locations: Europe (British Islands, Gibraltar, Heligoland, Malta and Gozo); Asia (India, including Depedent States, Celon, Andaman Islands, Straits Settlements, Aden, Hong Kong, Labuan Island, Perim Island); Africa (Gambia River, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Lagos, Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal, Mauritius and Depedencies, Socotra, Ascension Island, St. Helena Island, Tristan d’Acunha); North America (Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland, British Honduras or Belize, West India Islands, Bermuda Islands); South America (British Guiana, Falkland Islands); Oceania (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Northern Territory, Western Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand and Chatham Islands, Fiji Islands). ^[4]

[1]: Kenneth J Panton. 2015. Historical Dictionary of the British Empire. Rowman & Littlefield. Lanham.

[2]: Census of the British Empire, 1901: Report with Summary and Detailed Tables for the Several Colonies, &c. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1906.

[3]: (Bartholomew 1877, v) John Bartholomew. 1877. Atlas of the British empire throughout the world. George Philip and Son. London.

[4]: (Bartholomew 1877, vi) John Bartholomew. 1877. Atlas of the British empire throughout the world. George Philip and Son. London.

People. Maddison Project Estimates ^[1]
Alternate estimates: In 1877 CE? according to contemporary literature: Area: 8,754,793 square miles. Population: 284,110,693. ^[2]
According to statistician Patrick Colquhoun, the total population of the Empire in 1814 was 61.15 Million. A Treatise on the Wealth, Power and Resources of the British Empire
398.4 million in 1901 ^[3]

[1]: https://www.rug.nl/ggdc/historicaldevelopment/maddison/releases/maddison-project-database-2018

[2]: (Bartholomew 1877, v) John Bartholomew. 1877. Atlas of the British empire throughout the world. George Philip and Son. London.

[3]: Census of the British Empire, 1901: Report with Summary and Detailed Tables for the Several Colonies, &c. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1906.

People. Maddison Project Estimates ^[1]
Alternate estimates: In 1877 CE? according to contemporary literature: Area: 8,754,793 square miles. Population: 284,110,693. ^[2]
According to statistician Patrick Colquhoun, the total population of the Empire in 1814 was 61.15 Million. A Treatise on the Wealth, Power and Resources of the British Empire
398.4 million in 1901 ^[3]

[1]: https://www.rug.nl/ggdc/historicaldevelopment/maddison/releases/maddison-project-database-2018

[2]: (Bartholomew 1877, v) John Bartholomew. 1877. Atlas of the British empire throughout the world. George Philip and Son. London.

[3]: Census of the British Empire, 1901: Report with Summary and Detailed Tables for the Several Colonies, &c. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1906.

levels.
1. Capital (London)
2. Large Cities (ie. Delhi)
3. Cities
4. Large Towns
5. Towns
6. Villages
7. Hamlets
"England, it is to be observed from a civil point of view, is divided int counties or shires, hundreds, or as they are termed in some of the northern counties, wapentakes...cities, tithings, towns or vills, (the last three of which, in a legal sense are synonymous, boroughs, and parishes." ^[1]

[1]: (McCulloch 2011 [1837]: 263. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BCM2JGGW)

levels.
1. Commander-in-Chief (revived 1793) ^[1]
2. Secretary at War (combined with Secretary of State for War in 1855, abolished in 1863) ^[1]
2. Secretary of State for War. ("In 1870 the Commander in Chief became a subordinate officer." ^[1] )
3. Heads of specialist functions (inferred to be at similar levels)
4. High-ranking members of specialist functions (inferred to be at similar levels)

• "Until 1855 a number of independent offices and individuals were responsible for various aspects of Army administration. The four most important were the Commander in Chief, the Ordnance Office, the Secretary-at-War and the Secretary of State for War. Others who performed specialist functions were the controller of army accounts, the Army Medical Board, the Commissariat Department, the Board of General Officers, the Judge Advocate General, the Commissary General of Muster, the Paymaster General and the Home Office (before 1782 the twin secretaries of state)." ^[1]

• Colonial and Foreign Infantry battalions could include a Judge Advocate, Chaplain: four had a Judge Advocate and three had a Chaplain in this period. ^[3]
• "The three regiments of Foot Guards (1st, Coldstream and 3rd) had an establishment structure unlike that of the rest of the British infantry." ^[4] . Included: Drum Major, Hautbois, Solicitor, Deputy Marshal, Provost Marshal in addition to regular battalion positions.

[1]: (National Archives of the UK 2007. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BW7Q7AXM)

[2]: (MacArthur 2009: 154. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3NY37PHG)

[3]: (MacArthur 2009: 165. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3NY37PHG)

[4]: (MacArthur 2009: 169. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3NY37PHG)

[5]: (Rodger 2005: 622-627. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CIJFYY9I)

levels.
Central Government
1. Monarch
1. Prime Minister
2. High Ranking Members of Parliament: Chancellor, Treasurer, President of the King’s Council, Chief Justice, Chief Baron ^[1]
3. Members of the House of Lords ^{[2] [3]}
3. Members of the House of Commons ^{[2] [3]}
4-7. Masters, Secretaries, Clerks, other Minor Officials ^[4]
Colonial Office
2. Colonial Secretary (Colonial Office at Whitehall from 1811) ^[5]
3. Officials in the Colonial Office ^[5]
4-7. Masters, Secretaries, Clerks, other Minor Officials ^[4]
Judicial ^[6]
2. Lord High Chancellor (chief judge of the Court of Chancery, member of the House of Lords)
3. High-level judges
4. Local judges
5. Sheriff
6. Clerk of the Peace
7. Coroner
8. Magistrate
9. High Constable
10. Minor officers: Petty Constable, Gaoler, Bailiff, Executioner
Local Government (UK)
3. UK regional administrative units
4. High ranking local officials (inferred)
5. Minor Officials, Clerks, etc. (inferred)
Colonial Government
3. Governor (Proconsuls, and Viceroys)
3. East India Company ^[5]
3. Protectorates
4. Colonial bureaucracies (e.g. Indian Civil Service)
4. Colonial executive and Legislative Councils
4. Indigenous rulers
5-9. Masters, Secretaries, Clerks, other Minor Officials (inferred)
5-9. Internal/Indigenous ruling sub-divisions (in India likely to be fairly extensive to village level: seven levels inferred in the preceding Mughal Empire, nine levels inferred in the Delhi Sultanate.)

• "Unlike the Spanish and the French, the British never attempted to rule colonies directly from the metropole ... At the core of Imperial administration .... a series of essentially bilateral relationships which entailed constant negotiation rather than the imposition of rule and the acceptance of subjection." ^[2]
• "... governmental authority lagging behind, not leading, overseas expansion. ... the bureaucratic standard-bearers of British rule usually trailed in the wake of traders, missionaries, explorers, and settlers, and were charged, like firefighters or troubleshooters, with tidying up the chaos left by private entrepreneurs and trying to impose some order and regularity." ^[2]
• Imperial agents: "Even when the flow of information was speeded by clipper ships, then steamships and telegraphs, the fundamental bureaucratic problem remained the continuous adjustment of Imperial preferences and local practice. The mediating role was necessarily delegated to the men on the spot, principally the Governors, Proconsuls, and Viceroys who operated at the key point of interaction between directives emanating from London and pressures generated by conditions on the periphery." ^[2] Initially military agents, then civilian: "Military men, favoured after the French wars, were gradually replaced by civilians". ^[2]
• There was an Indian Civil Service containing about 2000 Europeans. ^[2] In Uganda in the 1890s CE there were 25 British officials. ^[2] "With Western ambitions as well as Western acculturation, some 4,000 Indians served in the uncovenanted Indian Civil Service by 1868, but their advancement to senior posts was slow and unwelcome." ^[2] Officials in India undertook "statistical surveys". ^[2]
• Governor: "The executive heads of administration in the more important crown colonies, and in some protectorates". In less important places the top officials were called administrators or commissioners. "The governors were appointed by the monarch (particularly in the early days of the Empire), by proprietors (in the case of proprietary colonies), or by the government and their duties varied considerably, some ruling as autocrats, others (especially as colonies moved toward independence) leaving most decision making to legislative councils composed of local residents. The monarch’s representative in those British Overseas Territories that have a permanent population also holds the title of ’governor’ and carries out the duties of head of state. Moreover, the British monarch is also - and independently - head of state of Australia and of Canada, appointed representatives to each state in the former and to each province in the latter. In Australia, these individuals are known as governors and in Canada as lieutenant-governors"." ^[7]
• 1784 CE: "Parliament approves the India Act, which gives the government direct control over the political activities of the East India Company." ^[7]
• "colonial self-reliance operating through representative Assemblies had been adopted for Nova Scotia (1758), Prince Edward Island (1773), and New Brunswick (1784), and after 1791 the Canadas, though the powers of Governors and executives were nominally strengthened in the light of the American experience. In the conquered, ceded, and later settled colonies, however, more authoritarian regimes were established, involving Governors working initially with advisory Councils and then with nominated Executive and Legislative Councils, the latter pattern coming to be known as Crown Colony government." ^[2] After Canadian rebellion "political advance was sought through the Union of 1841 and a subsequent devolution of authority which facilitated local self-government operating under Cabinet conventions known as responsible government. Colonial politicians, enjoying the legitimacy of popular consent for their exercise of executive power, now provided acceptable collaborators who could be left to their own devices in matters of internal administration." ^[2] "maturing communities would normally pass, at different speeds according to different circumstances, from Crown Colony status to full self-government." ^[2] During 1830s CE "in Crown Colonies outside British North America, the Governor’s advisory council was replaced by nominated Executive and Legislative Councils in Western Australia, the Cape, Trinidad, Mauritius, and Ceylon, thus bringing them in line with New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land (1825)." ^[2] "Once British North America had forced open the gateway to self-government, Australians and New Zealanders were able to make a final dash for local autonomy, securing both representative institutions and responsible government in virtually one leap between 1850 and 1856. They then set about making local sovereignty a reality by eroding residual Imperial authority - Crown lands, fiscal and commercial policy, and internal securtiy - and by forging the political frameworks of the nations they were in the process of building." ^[2] 1865 CE islands in the West Indies starting with Jamaica abandoned "legislative independence in exchange for the security of direct government by the British Crown." ^[2]
• Late 19th century many Protectorates created. ^[2] "Protectorates came to be administered as if they were colonies - and some were indeed redesignated as such - trends symbolized by the transfer of the Foreign Office’s responsibilities to the Colonial OFfice between 1898 and 1905." ^[2] "By the 1890s, without the formality of annexation, the British authorities and local agents were freely establishing in Protectorates rudimentary frameworks of government involving courts, taxation, military ’pacification’, displacement of indigenous rulers, and the issue of certificates for land titles which paved the way for Crown land rights and appropriation by European settlers." ^[2]
• 1783-1870 CE: British government largely non-interventionist due to "the physical difficulties of communicating" and "partly from a lack of a strong bureaucracy". "Authority in Britain was divided between different bodies. Effectively from about 1812, a Colonial Office in Whitehall was responsible for the colonies. This was headed by a minister who became Colonial Secretary. ... For the most part it saw its function as responding to developments overseas rather than initiating new policies. India was always a separate concern. Until 1858 the British government did not exercise direct authority over it. Detailed administration was left to the old East India Company, subject to the supervision of a government department on major issues of policy. The administration both of India and of the colonies was responsible to Parliament." ^[8]
• "Early British rule was very Indian in character. Once the British had succeeded in taking over an Indian state, they had neither the capacity nor the inclination to introduce radical changes in the way that it was run." ^[9]
• "An early administrative respect and tolerance for what were understood to be traditional Indian customs, laws, and religion were subsequently somewhat modified by calls from assorted utilitarians, liberal reformers, and evangelicals for the wholesale Anglicization of society. After the shock of the Indian Mutiny in 1857, however, enthusiasm for rapid Westernization was officially replaced by a deliberate distancing of British authority from the regenderation of Indian society and by a more pronounced insistence on Indian ’difference’." ^[2]
• British administrators "pragmatically sought accommodation with indigenous and emigrant societies" and while there were some powerful personalities the execution of British rule "was pursued chiefly through mediation with indigenous elites or collaborating groups possessing local influence". ^[2]
• After 1857 CE "India’s princes, as rulers of quasi-independent states, were thus integrated into the Imperial order with a recognized status and special privileges. ^[2]

[1]: (McCulloch 2011 [1837]: 264. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BCM2JGGW)

[2]: (Burroughs 1999) Peter Burroughs. Imperial institutions and the Government of Empire. Andrew Porter. ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[3]: (McCulloch 2011 [1837]: 219. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BCM2JGGW)

[4]: (McCulloch 2011 [1837]: 249. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BCM2JGGW)

[5]: (Marshall 2001: 24. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IT2S8JJ3)

[6]: (McCulloch 2011 [1837]: 263-70. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BCM2JGGW)

[7]: Kenneth J Panton. 2015. Historical Dictionary of the British Empire. Rowman & Littlefield. Lanham.

[8]: (Marshall 1996, 24) P J Marshall. 1783-1870: An Expanding Empire. P J Marshall. ed. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[9]: (Marshall 1996, 22) P J Marshall. The British Empire at the End of the Eighteenth Century. P J Marshall. ed. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

British Civil Service, colonial bureaucracies e.g. Indian Civil Service. In Britain, expanding system of full-time salaried bureaucrats; in India, a system of (mostly non-native) salaried officials known as the Indian Civil Service, introduced in 1858.

Official regulations covered "private property rights, the rule of law, trial by jury". ^[1] "In the case of Britain and the states that obtained independence from it, the two important components are Parliament as supreme law-maker and the nature and jurisdiction of courts." ^[2] . English common and statutory law, amended with colonial statutes wherever deemed necessary.

[1]: (Burroughs 1999) Peter Burroughs. Imperial institutions and the Government of Empire. Andrew Porter. ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[2]: (Taucar 2014) Christopher Edward Taucar. 2014. The British System of Government and Its Historical Development. McGill-Queen’s University Press.

Official regulations covered "private property rights, the rule of law, trial by jury". ^[1] "In the case of Britain and the states that obtained independence from it, the two important components are Parliament as supreme law-maker and the nature and jurisdiction of courts." ^[2]

[1]: (Burroughs 1999) Peter Burroughs. Imperial institutions and the Government of Empire. Andrew Porter. ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[2]: (Taucar 2014) Christopher Edward Taucar. 2014. The British System of Government and Its Historical Development. McGill-Queen’s University Press.

“As a revolution in urban governance swept Britain from the 1840s onward, a revolution in water supply and drainage infrastructure followed. The apogee of that movement was a water supply system called the gravitation scheme that reforming municipalities aspired to build. It entailed drastically reshaping landscapes in the hinterlands of cities by damming rivers, raising lakes, or flooding valleys and then piping water under pressure to sometimes distant cities; it also, promoters hoped, would reform urban environments and societies at the same time. Between 1840 and the end of the century, engineers in Britain executed it approximately one hundred times, but the gravitation scheme had a life beyond the bounds of Britain. In the second half of the nineteenth century, engineers—usually the very same individuals who had carried them out in Britain— introduced the scheme to cities such as Bombay, Colombo, Hong Kong, and Singapore. There, the gravitation scheme also had a transformative influence; it was a project of environmental and technical change that helped to solidify the modernizing colonial state.” ^[1]

[1]: Broich, Joseph. 2007. “Engineering the Empire: British Water Supply Systems and Colonial Societies, 1850-1900” Journal of British Studies 46: 347-365.

Isambard Kingdom Brunel engineered many bridges.

"The fact is, that the paper currency of the country cannot be on a perfectly sound footing until the issue of notes, whether by joint stock banks or private individuals, be suppressed. ... A paper currency is not in a sound or wholesome state, unless, 1st, means be taken to insure that each particular note or parcel of such currency be paid immediately on demand; and unless, 2nd, the whole currency vary in amount and value exactly as a metallic currency would do were the paper currency withdrawn and coins substituted in its stead. The last condition is quite as indispensable to the existence of a well-established currency as the former; and it is one that cannot be fuilly realized otherwise than by confining the issue of paper to a single source. It is easy to see that were paper issued only by the Bank of England, or some one source in London, and then only in exchange for bullion, the currency would be in its most perfect state, and would fluctuate exactly as it would do were it wholly metallic. But at present the currency is supplied by hundreds of individuals and associations, all actuated by diferent and frequently conflicting views and interests." ^[1]

[1]: (McCulloch 1847, 37) J R McCulloch. 1847. A Descriptive and Statistical Account of the British Empire. Third Edition. Volume II. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. London.

"The Coinage of the British Empire from the Earliest Period to the Present Time" Henry Noel Humphreys (1861). "Before the early nineteenth century the Royal Mint’s role was largely domestic. Britain’s North American colonies had gained the right to issue their own coinage ... while in South Asia the East India Company had been allowed since the late seventeeth century to ’purchase’ permission from local Indian rulers to reproduce coins that followed India as opposed to English conventions. For the Mint itself the eighteenth century was a period of relative stagnation: British silver and copper coinage was in a poor condition and was in short supply. ... The end of the Napoleonic wars, however, was followed by currency reform and in 1816-17 recoinage in Britain. In 1818 private coins were made illegal. ... The installation of Boulton’s steam-powered machinery, coupled with a French invention, the ’reducing machine’, which reproduced original coin designs by machine rather than by hand engraving, enabled for the first time the mass production of high-quality and homogenous copper coins and transformed the Mint itself into an ’industrial concern’. These changes coincided with the growth of a ’second’ British Empire and the Mint began producing more coins for overseas dependenies." ^[1]

[1]: (Stockwell 2018, 45-46) Sarah Stockwell. 2018. The British End of the British Empire. Cambridge University PRess. Cambridge.

"Before the early nineteenth century the Royal Mint’s role was largely domestic. Britain’s North American colonies had gained the right to issue their own coinage ... while in South Asia the East India Company had been allowed since the late seventeeth century to ’purchase’ permission from local Indian rulers to reproduce coins that followed India as opposed to English conventions." ^[1] "domestic British coin became increasingly an ’imperial currency’, circulating throughout much of the Empire. ... in the course of the nineteeth century, the Mint began producing a variety of dedicated colonial as well as other foreign coinages, designated ’private’ by the Mint, and paid for by the overseas customers. From 1883 the Treasury encouraged all colonies to obtain their local currencies from the Mint." ^[2]

[1]: (Stockwell 2018, 45-46) Sarah Stockwell. 2018. The British End of the British Empire. Cambridge University PRess. Cambridge.

[2]: (Stockwell 2018, 46) Sarah Stockwell. 2018. The British End of the British Empire. Cambridge University PRess. Cambridge.

This reference concerns possessions in South Africa: "...by horses and, in the ’twenties, by postcarts: a weekly postal service was set up in 1834. In 1852 there was a daily service from Cape Town to Paarl and Stellenbosh, thrice weekly to Grahamstown and twice weekly to the Karoo. The postcart also conveyed passengers. Following the issue of the famous three-cornered Capes in 1853, a penny post was established in limited areas in 1860 and four years later it was possible to extend it to the whole Colony. But, despite better roads, the ox-waggon remained the commercial vehicle and was still in use a century later." ^[1]

[1]: (? 1963, 795) ? in Eric A Walker. ed. 1963. The Cambridge History of the British Empire. Volume III. South Africa, Rhodesia and The High Commission Territories. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

This reference concerns possessions in South Africa: "...by horses and, in the ’twenties, by postcarts: a weekly postal service was set up in 1834. In 1852 there was a daily service from Cape Town to Paarl and Stellenbosh, thrice weekly to Grahamstown and twice weekly to the Karoo. The postcart also conveyed passengers. Following the issue of the famous three-cornered Capes in 1853, a penny post was established in limited areas in 1860 and four years later it was possible to extend it to the whole Colony. But, despite better roads, the ox-waggon remained the commercial vehicle and was still in use a century later." ^[1]

[1]: (? 1963, 795) ? in Eric A Walker. ed. 1963. The Cambridge History of the British Empire. Volume III. South Africa, Rhodesia and The High Commission Territories. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

This reference concerns possessions in South Africa: "...by horses and, in the ’twenties, by postcarts: a weekly postal service was set up in 1834. In 1852 there was a daily service from Cape Town to Paarl and Stellenbosh, thrice weekly to Grahamstown and twice weekly to the Karoo. The postcart also conveyed passengers. Following the issue of the famous three-cornered Capes in 1853, a penny post was established in limited areas in 1860 and four years later it was possible to extend it to the whole Colony. But, despite better roads, the ox-waggon remained the commercial vehicle and was still in use a century later." ^[1]

[1]: (? 1963, 795) ? in Eric A Walker. ed. 1963. The Cambridge History of the British Empire. Volume III. South Africa, Rhodesia and The High Commission Territories. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

More successful fighting Zulus standing behind barricades. ^[1]

[1]: (Barthorp 1988, 14) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.

"Engineers not only cut paths through forests, built fortified stations, and erected bridges, but they also provided telegraphic communications, aerial reconnaissance from balloons, and rail transportation in some operations." ^[1] 1856-1881 CE: Trenches used in warfare at this time. ^[2] Were more successful fighting Zulus standing behind barricades. ^[3]

[1]: (Spiers 1996, 197) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[2]: (Barthorp 1988, 8) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.

[3]: (Barthorp 1988, 14) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.

Steel scabbard. ^[1]

[1]: (Barthorp 1988, 21) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.

Brass-hilted swords. ^[1]

[1]: (Barthorp 1988, 21) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.

Coded present as they were used by indigenous forces under British command? Why would the British use tension siege engines when they have cannon? Ed.

Coded present as they were used by indigenous forces under British command? Ed.

Used by indigenous forces under British command?

"The army profited, too, from an extensive rearmament during the last three decades of the nineteenth century. The introduction of breech-loading rifters (the snider and Martini-Henry) increased the rates of fire and enabled soldiers to fire from a prone position." Also introduced: "bolt mechanism and magazine, smaller calibre ammunition, and smokeless propellants (in the Lee-Enfield rifle)". "Finally, the army experimented with different machine-guns before adopting the relatively light and geniunely automatic Maxim machine-gun." ^[1] Illustration shows pistol. ^[2] 1860s, smoothbore muskets. 1880s, breach-loading rifles. Artillery: Muzzle-loading cannon; rifled & breach-loading artillery 1850s onwards; machine guns 1870s onwards ^[3]

[1]: (Spiers 1996, 196) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[2]: (Barthorp 1988, Plate G) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.

[3]: M.L. Wilkinson. "A Hundred Years of the British Army: Weapons and Equipment." Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, Vol. 76, 1931. 300-310.

The Royal Artillery. ^[1] The Indian Mutiny "was the last major campaign fought with smoothbore guns, with limited range and accuracy largely unchanged since the Napoleonic Wars. The field batteries sent to China in 1860 were equipped with Armstrong 12-pdr. rifled breech-loaders ... the same gun and a 6-pdr. version was also used against the Maoris. Firing elongated, instead of spherical projectiles of shell, shrapnel and case with greatly enhanced accuracy and range - more accurate at two miles than a smoothbore equivalent." ^[2] "From 1871 the 9-pdr. and 16-pdr. [rifled muzzle-loader] became the standard field guns for horse and field batteries; their ranges respectively were 2000-3,300 yards and 1,800-4,000, depending on elevation." ^[2]

[1]: (Spiers 1996, 196) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[2]: (Barthorp 1988, 12) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.

Used by indigenous forces under British command?

Present according to Donagh Davis (2019). ^[1]

[1]: Donagh Davis. 2019. Personal Communication to Seshat Databank

Coded inferred present as they could be used by indigenous forces under British command? Ed.

Sword used by cavalry. ^[1]

[1]: (Barthorp 1988, 21) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.

Sword bayonets. ^[1]

[1]: (Barthorp 1988, 23) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.

Coded inferred present as they could be used by indigenous forces under British command? Ed.

Coded inferred present as they could be used by indigenous forces under British command? Ed.

Horses. ^[1] At the Battle of Omdurman of the Second Sudan War 1898 CE General Kitchener had "2,469 horses, 896 mules, 3,524 camels, and 229 donkeys." ^[2]

[1]: (Spiers 1996, 194) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[2]: (Spiers 1996, 206) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

"As these campaigns placed a premium upon careful logistical preparations, Victorian commanders and their staffs became adept at calculating their supply, transport, and support arrangements. They repeatedly had to cope with difficulties of transportation, especially the variable quality of animals procured and the poor standards of animal husbandry in the field. They often had to procure vast numbers of animals (in Zululand, Lord Chelmsford ultimately employed 27,000 oxen and 5,000 mules to haul over 2,5000 vehicles), and had to adapt their transport to local circumstances. They employed bullock carts, elephants, and camels in India, waggons drawn by oxen and mules in southern Africa, bearers in west Africa, boats in Perak, and pack-animals in mountains and across roadless country." ^[1] Rifled-breech loaders "were soon transferred to elephants ... to form an improvised, and the first RA mountain battery". ^[2]

[1]: (Spiers 1996, 198) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[2]: (Barthorp 1988, 12) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.

"As these campaigns placed a premium upon careful logistical preparations, Victorian commanders and their staffs became adept at calculating their supply, transport, and support arrangements. They repeatedly had to cope with difficulties of transportation, especially the variable quality of animals procured and the poor standards of animal husbandry in the field. They often had to procure vast numbers of animals (in Zululand, Lord Chelmsford ultimately employed 27,000 oxen and 5,000 mules to haul over 2,5000 vehicles), and had to adapt their transport to local circumstances. They employed bullock carts, elephants, and camels in India, waggons drawn by oxen and mules in southern Africa, bearers in west Africa, boats in Perak, and pack-animals in mountains and across roadless country." ^[1] At the Battle of Omdurman of the Second Sudan War 1898 CE General Kitchener had "2,469 horses, 896 mules, 3,524 camels, and 229 donkeys." ^[2]

[1]: (Spiers 1996, 198) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[2]: (Spiers 1996, 206) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

"As these campaigns placed a premium upon careful logistical preparations, Victorian commanders and their staffs became adept at calculating their supply, transport, and support arrangements. They repeatedly had to cope with difficulties of transportation, especially the variable quality of animals procured and the poor standards of animal husbandry in the field. They often had to procure vast numbers of animals (in Zululand, Lord Chelmsford ultimately employed 27,000 oxen and 5,000 mules to haul over 2,5000 vehicles), and had to adapt their transport to local circumstances. They employed bullock carts, elephants, and camels in India, waggons drawn by oxen and mules in southern Africa, bearers in west Africa, boats in Perak, and pack-animals in mountains and across roadless country." ^[1] At the Battle of Omdurman of the Second Sudan War 1898 CE General Kitchener had "2,469 horses, 896 mules, 3,524 camels, and 229 donkeys." ^[2]

[1]: (Spiers 1996, 198) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[2]: (Spiers 1996, 206) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

"The foreign service helmet was introduced in 1877. Made of cork covered in khaki cloth, it was usually worn with the curtain or neck protector. The tunic was also of khaki cloth ... Trousers were of the same material and were worn with puttees." ^[1]

[1]: Christopher Wilkinson-Latham. 1977. The Boar War. Osprey Publishing.

Illustration "Officer, Bengal Horse Artillery" shows knee-high (leather?) boots. ^[1] "Whereas the 8th had worn their trousers loose, the 67th adopted puttees (from a Hindi word meaning bandages) to support and protect the leg, as worn by Indian troops and soon widespread among the British. Pictorial evidence suggests, however, that puttees were not necessarily worn at all times." ^[2] Steel cuirasses worn mainly for ceremonial purposes/use. ^[3]

[1]: (Barthorp 1988, Plate B) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.

[2]: (Barthorp 1988, 37) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.

[3]: Richard Knotel, Herbert Knotel, Jr., & Herbert Sieg. Uniforms of the World: A Compendium of Army, Navy and Air Force Uniforms, 1700-1937. New York: Scribner’s, 1980.

"Practical considerations, however, prevailed during the South African campaigns and fighting men in the Boer War needed the large shady hat of soft felt with brim that could be lowered to shield eyes or nape ... The soft khaki felt hat of the Boer War proved acceptable and comfortable and its shape was retained for the the Civil Imperial Volunteers. ... At the outbreak of the First World War the peaked cap proved a light and practical form of headwear for all ranks, but under shellfire the metal helmet (or ’tin hat’) protected the head against shrapnel." ^[1] "The foreign service helmet was introduced in 1877. Made of cork covered in khaki cloth, it was usually worn with the curtain or neck protector. The tunic was also of khaki cloth ... Trousers were of the same material and were worn with puttees." ^[2]

[1]: Hilda Amphlett.1974 (2003). Hats: A History of Fashion in Headwear. Dover Publications, Inc. Mineola.

[2]: Christopher Wilkinson-Latham. 1977. The Boar War. Osprey Publishing.

"Practical considerations, however, prevailed during the South African campaigns and fighting men in the Boer War needed the large shady hat of soft felt with brim that could be lowered to shield eyes or nape ... The soft khaki felt hat of the Boer War proved acceptable and comfortable and its shape was retained for the the Civil Imperial Volunteers. ... At the outbreak of the First World War the peaked cap proved a light and practical form of headwear for all ranks, but under shellfire the metal helmet (or ’tin hat’) protected the head against shrapnel." ^[1] "The Home Service pattern helmet, generally known as the ’Blue Cloth’ helmet, was introduced by General Order 40 of May 1878, and replaced the shako that had been worn since 1869. The fittings, spike, plate, rosettes and chinchain were all in brass." ^[2] "The foreign service helmet was introduced in 1877. Made of cork covered in khaki cloth, it was usually worn with the curtain or neck protector. The tunic was also of khaki cloth ... Trousers were of the same material and were worn with puttees." ^[2] "Crealock’s sketches confirm this dress for the infantry and show the King’s Dragoon Guards in brass, plume-less helmets with turbans, or probably later in the campaign, airpipe helmets, tunics and booted overalls or, for officers, long boots pulled on over their trousers." ^[3]

[1]: Hilda Amphlett.1974 (2003). Hats: A History of Fashion in Headwear. Dover Publications, Inc. Mineola.

[2]: Christopher Wilkinson-Latham. 1977. The Boar War. Osprey Publishing.

[3]: (Barthorp 1988, 24, 33) Michael Barthorp. 1988. The British Army on Campaign. 1856-1881. Osprey Publishing Ltd.

Royal Navy. ^[1]

[1]: (Burroughs 1999) Peter Burroughs. Imperial institutions and the Government of Empire. Andrew Porter. ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

At the Battle of Omdurman of the Second Sudan War 1898 CE General Kitchener "had at his disposal 44 guns and 20 machine-guns on land, and another 36 guns and 24 machine-guns on gunboats". ^[1]

[1]: (Spiers 1996, 206) Edward Spiers. The Late Victorian Army 1868-1914. David G Chandler. Ian Beckett. eds. 1996. The Oxford History of the British Army. Oxford University Press. Oxford.