Mughal Empire

Dehli. The Mughal rulers of India constantly toured the realm and maintained no fixed capital. Mid-seventeenth century Delhi is reputed to have had a population of about 400,000 but one European observer claimed most of it moved with the royal court, reducing its population to as little as 65,000. Another compared Mughal Delhi to a ‘camp’ rather than a city like Paris, and apparently there were so many trees that from a distance it looked like a wood. ^{[1] [2]
[3]} -- we have a reference but no number.

[1]: Ramesh Kumar Arora. Rajni Goyal. 1996. Indian Public Administration: Institutions and Issues. Wishwa Prakashan. New Delhi. p.23

[2]: Abraham Eraly. 2007. The Mughal World: Life in India’s Last Golden Age. Penguin Books. New Delhi. p. 8

[3]: Hambly, G. (1982) Towns and Cities: The Mughal Empire in The Cambridge economic history of India Vol.1, c1200-c.1750. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.436.

squared kilometres. [3,200,000-4,500,000] ^[1]

[1]: Richards, (1993) The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1, 190.

[110,000,000-150,000,000] ^[1] The reference refers to the year range 1650-1750 CE, which is turned into 1700 CE, so that it can be matched up with the population range.

[1]: Richards, (1993) The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1, 190.

Administration of parganas adjacent to cities inhabited by peasants lacking strong lineage organizations could be managed on a village by village basis.(81) Villagers carried agricultural products to sell at the nearest market or pargana town. (91) By the 1680s hundreds of prosperous market towns (qasbas) had proliferated in northern India. In each pargana the central town served as a principal market. Gradually, the networks of these trading towns and larger villages grew more dense. (194) Each provincial capital had a governor, responsible directly to the emperor. (59, 67) ^[1]
1. The capital
2. Provincial capitals3. Towns4. Villages

[1]: Richards, J. F. 1995. The Mughal Empire, Part 1. Volume 5. Cambridge University Press.

Would be at least one level.
Din-e Ilahi, religion of the empire from 1582 CE to 1605 CE, had no priestly hierarchy or sacred scriptures. ^[1]
Islam (which both proceeded and succeeded Din-e Ilahi) similarly has no hierarchy, although there are Shaikh, Olama or Imam’s who are seen as spiritual teachers and leaders. ^[2]

[1]: Dr.Sunita Gupta, Children’s Knowledge Bank, Pustak Mahal.

[2]: Link

"Noteworthy was the decimal chain of command, the grouping of soldiers in tens, hundreds, and thousands, up to an army division of 10,000 men (Mongolian tümän, Pers. tūmān), which was to have an enduring impact on the military organization of succeeding eastern Islamic powers, being adopted by, e.g., the Mughals in India." ^[1]
Decimal: 1, 10s, 100s, 1000s, 10000s, Emperor = 6
1. Emperor
2. Bakhshi (Adjutant-General). Bakhshi-titles were given to those with administrative duties, the Adjutant-General commanded the army in the Emperor’s absence.3. Mir Bakhshi4. Other Bakhshi (such as Bakhshi-i-tan)5. Officer.Mansabdars were also chiefs and leaders, ranked based on the number of men they recruited, the mansab rank was further divided into zat and suwar, where zat referred to foot-soldiers and suwar to horsemen. ^[2]
6. Soldier.

[1]: (Bosworth 2011) Bosworth, C E. 2011. ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/army-ii

[2]: Shreya Acharya, Short Essay on the Mansabdari System of Akbar, Link

Delhi Sultanate which "had a powerful impact on small states and principalities that were formed after its disintegration as well as on the Mughal administration that would come into existence in the sixteenth century." ^[1]
needs more work on central government
1. Emperor
Furthermore, the Zamindars belonged to the nobility and formed the ruling class. ^[2]
_Central government_
2. WakilHighest administrative officer
3. Departments? inferred4.5.
_Provincial government_
3. Subahdar of several SarkarsA group of one or more villages constitutes a paragana, a few paragana a sarkar, and several sarkar’s (or ’shiqqs’) a subahdar. A wakil was the highest administrative officer. ^[3]
4. Sarkar of a few Paragana
5. Paragana of one or more villages
6. Muqqaddam (Village headman)Also of note are the Muqaddam and Patwari. The village head was a muqaddam - the sole link between government and village. Although not a government servant, he was responsible for maintaining law and order. Similarly a patwari, a record keeper, was not employed by the state but by the village community. ^[4] -- not a paid official but still took orders i.e. maintain law and order
7. Patwari (record keeper)
7. Employed by muqaddam to help maintain law and order inferred

[1]: (Ahmed 2011, 96) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.

[2]: Barbara Daly Metcalf, Joint Committee on South Asia Moral conduct and authority: the place of adab in South Asian Islam, pp 269

[3]: Farīd Bhakkari, Shaikh Farid Bhakkari, Ziyaud-Din A. Desai, A Biographical Dictionary of Mughal Noblemen, (1993) p 107

[4]: Mughal Administration: Central, Provincial, and Local, p.22 Link

The Mughal Empire relied largely on the military force employed from the ’Indian military labor market’, which included the ’highly talented, movable warlords and their mounted following’ in India. ^[1] The skills of these soldiers ranged from the part-time peasant to the professional warlord or jamadar. ^[2]

[1]: J.J.L. Gommans, Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500-1700 (2004), p.67

[2]: J.J.L. Gommans, Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500-1700 (2004), p.68

Mansabdar was the generic term for the military-type grading of all imperial officials who governed the empire and commanded it’s armies in the emperor’s name. ^[1]

[1]: Richards, (1993) The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 64

The mint in Delhi. ^[1]

[1]: Dr. M. P. Singh, Towns, Markets, Mints & Ports in the Mughal Empire (2007)

Persian was needed to enter the administrative service. Hindus learned Persian in school in order to qualify. ^[1] -- Hindus could gain employment within the Islamic administration

[1]: Asher, Catherine B., and Cynthia Talbot, India before Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p.140

The army and revenue service to support it were run on bureaucratic lines. ^[1]

[1]: Richards, (1993) The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 59

Persian was needed to enter the administrative service. Hindus learned Persian in school in order to qualify. ^[1]

[1]: Asher, Catherine B., and Cynthia Talbot, India before Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p.140

"These men, who sometimes acted as lawyers, were known as wakils, but the term did not have the precise legal definition that it acquired during the British period. H. H. Wilson defined a wakil as, "A person invested with authority to act for another, an ambassador, a representative, an agent, an attorney." It is in this very general sense that the word was current in pre-British times; only on rare occasions do we find the term wakil used to describe someone who pleaded a case in a court of law.
"A wakil was, then, a representative, although not necessarily a legal representative. In general, his job was to negotiate with equals or superiors of his employer, in order to obtain a desired goal, such as trading privileges, a reduction of the revenue demand, a military alliance, or a favorable decision in a civil or criminal court of law. In many cases a wakil was also a gatherer of information. Thus, most important nobles, landholders, and foreign trading companies employed wakils whose job was to attend the court of the governor of the province in which they were situated (or perhaps even the emperor’s court) in order to collect information that might be useful, as well as to represent the interests of their employers when disputes between nobles arose, or when a favor from the governor was needed. [...] Most of the wakils described in historical accounts, then, were specialists in the arts of bargaining, negotiation, and pleading cases; but usually they did not work in law courts, and often they were not even concerned with legal matters. However, there were some wakils who were courtroom lawyers, although not as many as there were in contemporary Europe." ^[1]

[1]: (Calkins 1968, pp. 404-405)

e.g. the Quazi-ul-Quazat [chief justice] ^[1]

[1]: Link

In 1605 CE Jahangir issued 12 ordinances. It was not a comprehensive legal code but a well-meaning if also somewhat idiosyncratic set of rulings. These included the setting up of hospitals, a ban on the sale of alcohol, the release of prisoners, and a proclamation that Sunday was an auspicious day. Sharia law codes and the rulings of the ulemas were of fundamental importance to the Islamic dynasty but most of the native Indian customary law was respected. ^{[1] [2]}

[1]: N. Jayapalan. 2001. History of India. From 1206 to 1773. Volume II. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. New Delhi. p. 158-159

[2]: Ramesh Kumar Arora. Rajni Goyal. 1996. Indian Public Administration: Institutions and Issues. Wishwa Prakashan. New Delhi. p.22

At local and informal level. ^[1]

[1]: Link

The Palace and city built by Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri had shops. ^[1]

[1]: Asher, Catherine B., and Cynthia Talbot, India before Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p.132.

used for gardens. ^[1]

[1]: M.Conan,D.Oaks,The Middle East Garden Traditions, Unity, and Diversity: Questions, Methods and Resources in a Multicultural Perspective (2007)

^[1] Canals, dighi (cisterns), nahar (small channels), qanat (underground channels), dams, ponds, neighbourhood wells, and impressive baoli were built to capture and transport river and monsoon rains. Drinking water within a princely household was managed by the darogha-i abdar, the superintendent of drinking water. Aristocrats often took water from the Ganges river, which was thought to be especially pure and also ice. ^{[2] [3] [4] [5]}

[1]: M.Conan,D.Oaks,The Middle East Garden Traditions, Unity, and Diversity: Questions, Methods and Resources in a Multicultural Perspective (2007)

[2]: Mark Harvey. 2015. Drinking Water: A Socio-economic Analysis of Historical and Societal Variation. Routledge. Abingdon.

[3]: Munis D. Faruqui. 2012. The Princes of the Mughal Empire, 1504–1719. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. p.278

[4]: Daljit Singh. 2004. Punjab Socio-Economic Condition (1501-1700 A.D.). Commonwealth Publishers.

[5]: James L Wescoat, Jr. Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn. 1996. Mughal Gardens: Sources, Places, Representations, and Prospects. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. Washington, D.C. pp. 73-74

e.g. the highway that ran from east to west India, restored by Sher Shah. ^[1]

[1]: A.K. Farooque, Roads and Communications in Mughal India, Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli (1977)

"With the conquest of Gujarāt, Bengāl, Orissa and Golkonda a number of ports lying in those provinces came into possession of the Mughals." ^[1]

[1]: Dr. M. P. Singh, Towns, Markets, Mints & Ports in the Mughal Empire (2007) p192.

Canals and water works were present, although irrigation systems were not common. ^[1]

[1]: Link

Bridges were constructed to allow faster transportation across land. ^[1]

[1]: Link

Manuscripts in Persian, Sanskrit. ^[1]

[1]: Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp 245.

Persian, Sanskrit. ^[1]

[1]: Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp 245.

Persian, Sanskrit. ^[1]

[1]: Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp 245.

Manuscripts in Persian, Sanskrit. ^[1]

[1]: Habibullah, A. B. M. (1961). The foundation of Muslim rule in India. Central Book Depot, pp 245.

Mathematics, natural sciences, social sciences. ^[1]

[1]: Link

present: 1526-1582 CE; absent: 1582-1605 CE; present: 1605-1857 CE Quran for Islam, Din-e Ilahi has no sacred scriptures.

Commentaries used in teaching.

Philosophical thought at this time was based on the deep philosophical tradition in India, ^[1] which was discussed and written down by the mentor of Mughal emperor Prince Dara Shikoh, Kavindracarya. ^[2]

[1]: Kulke, H. Rothermund, D. 2010. A History of India (5th ed.). London: Routledge, pp102-3.

[2]: Busch, A. 2010. Hidden in Plain View: Brajbhasha Poets at the Mughal Court. Modern Asian Studies, 44, pp 267-309. p292.

Measurements and data collection used in land revenue system. ^[1]

[1]: Catherine B. Asher and Cynthia Talbot, India before Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p.128.

e.g. the chronology of Akbar’s reign by Abu- al-Fazl ^[1]

[1]: Catherine B. Asher and Cynthia Talbot, India before Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p.124.

The Dastan-i Amir Hamza ^[1]

[1]: Catherine B. Asher and Cynthia Talbot, India before Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p.138.

Shell money in use. ^[1]

[1]: Jan Hogendorn, Marion Johnson, The Shell Money of the Slave Trade, p.42

Silver based money, the rupiya introduced by Sher Shah. ^[1] Sher Shah (c.1540) issued a pure silver coin called a rupya (rupee) with a weight of 178.25 grains. He issued gold coins, which were rare, as well as a copper coin called paisa and extended the issuing of this coinage on a uniform basis from all his 15 mints. This trimetallic system became permanent when it was adopted by Akbar with minor modifications. The Mughal rupee soon became the standard for which commodity prices, rates for exchange and for loans were quoted in. ^[2] Akbar sanctioned the following daily rates of wages: ordinary labourers 2 dams, superior labourers 2-4 dams, carpenters 3-7 dams and builders 5-7 dams. The dam was a copper coin a litter over 1 tola and 8 Masas in weight and 1/40 of the value of the silver rupiya in value. The purchasing power of an Akbari Rupiya was nearly 6 Indian Rupees in 1912. (82) The lowest servants were entitled to less than two rupees monthly (e.g. 65 dams for a sweeper, 60 for a camel-driver, etc.) while the bulk of the menials and the ordinary foot-soldiers began at less than three Rupees. Even slaves were entitled to one dam daily, equivalent to three-quarters of a rupee monthly in the currency of the time. (82) ^[3]
Cost of wheat equals 0.30 rupees per maund of 25.11kgs c.1595 CE in Lahore. (21, Table 3) In 1611, price of wheat in Surat (Gujarat) was 1.03 rupees per maund, rising to 6.37 in 1630 during famine. In 1631 at Broach (Gujarat) the price rose to 6.66 rupees per maund (25, Table 4). The prices of wheat in Agra were higher than Lahore by almost 20 percent. (31) Ordinary Labourer receives 1.50 rupees per month c.1595 (64) Lowest wage of a worker in the Imperial Establishment (domestic servant, peon, porter, etc) c.1613-89 in Agra was 3.00 rupee per month on average. The daily wages of an unskilled labourer more than doubled between c.1595 and 1637 from 2 dams to 6.5 paisas. In 1637 the monthly wages of unskilled labourers was 3.5 rupees. (69-70, Table 24) ^[4]

[1]: Catherine B. Asher and Cynthia Talbot, India before Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p.121.

[2]: (455-57) Dani, A. S. and Masson, V. 2003. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast : from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century. UNESCO

[3]: Sircar, D. C. 2008. Studies in Indian Coins. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.

[4]: Haider, N. 2004. “Prices and Wages in India (1200-1800): Source Material, Historiography and New Directions.” Towards a Global History of Prices and Wages, Utrecht: 19-21 Aug. 2004.

In use, although foreign coins were often remelted as Mughal coins, ^[1]

[1]: George Cuhaj, Standard Catalog of World Gold Coins, 2009, p.815

Stations were positioned at regular intervals along roads to keep horses for the next leg of the journey. ^[1]

[1]: Chitra, Joshi. 2012. Dak Roads, Dak Runners, and the Reordering of Communication Networks.Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis. 57, pp. 169-189.

The postal system was used mainly for military and economic purposes, but was expanded towards the end of the empire through British colonial influences. ^[1]

[1]: Chitra, Joshi. 2012. Dak Roads, Dak Runners, and the Reordering of Communication Networks.Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis. 57, pp. 169-189.

The postal system was used mainly for military and economic purposes, but was expanded towards the end of the empire through British colonial influences. ^[1]

[1]: Chitra, Joshi. 2012. Dak Roads, Dak Runners, and the Reordering of Communication Networks.Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis. 57, pp. 169-189.

Runners and mounted couriers were used to transport information across the empire quickly, for military and economic purposes. ^[1]

[1]: Chitra, Joshi. 2012. Dak Roads, Dak Runners, and the Reordering of Communication Networks.Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis. 57, pp. 169-189.

In the form of bound hedges. ^[1]

[1]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),pp. 260-269.

Typical fortification of town or city e.g. Delhi. ^[1]

[1]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),pp. 260-269.

Castles on hills inherited from previous polities.

Port of Surat: the inner citadel was protected by a moat. ^[1] Ed: seems to be references to something called a khandaq - which could be either moat or a ditch or both.

[1]: Gommans, J. J. L. 2002. Mughal Warfare: Indian frontiers and high roads to Empire, 1500-1700. London: Routledge, p139.

Used on campaign. ^[1]

[1]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),pp. 260-269.

Used in fortification of town or city. ^[1]

[1]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),pp. 260-269.

Ed: seems to be references to something called a khandaq - which could be either moat or a ditch or both.

Forts were present throughout the Mughal Empire, but mainly in new territories as ’safe points’ to extend from. An example of a complex fort is at the port of Surat. Here, Aurangezeb ordered for strong bulwarks to protect the outer part of the city, while the inner citadel was protected by a moat and 30-40 pieces of heavy artillery. ^[1]

[1]: Gommans, J. J. L. 2002. Mughal Warfare: Indian frontiers and high roads to Empire, 1500-1700. London: Routledge, p139.

Joshan steel breast plate. ^[1]

[1]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),p. 566.

e.g Iron leg pieces. ^[1]

[1]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),pp. 566.

Armor included iron and copper mail (mighfar), and elephant armor could be made of high iron or brass plates. In addition, guns were made of bronze and brass. ^{[1] [2]}

[1]: Gommans, J. J. L. 2002. Mughal Warfare: Indian frontiers and high roads to Empire, 1500-1700. London: Routledge, p199, 125, 133.

[2]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),pp. 90-102

Armor included iron and copper mail (mighfar), and elephant armor could be made of high iron or brass plates. In addition, guns were made of bronze and brass. ^{[1] [2]}

[1]: Gommans, J. J. L. 2002. Mughal Warfare: Indian frontiers and high roads to Empire, 1500-1700. London: Routledge, p199, 125, 133.

[2]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),pp. 90-102

"Aside from the massive cannon and mortars, a number of more old-fashioned weapons were also present at sieges. Catapults and trebuchets remained in Indian siege trains for decades after Babur’s invasion. A few distinct advantages saved them from immediate obsolescence. They were inexpensive and could be easily broken down for transport and assembled in the field. Like mortars they sent missiles on a high trajectory, ideal for indirect fire. They could also be loaded with ammunition too fragile to be fired from a cannon—gunpowder bombs and canisters of incendiary or caustic chemicals." ^[1]

[1]: (De la Garza 2010, p. 123)

"Aside from the massive cannon and mortars, a number of more old-fashioned weapons were also present at sieges. Catapults and trebuchets remained in Indian siege trains for decades after Babur’s invasion. A few distinct advantages saved them from immediate obsolescence. They were inexpensive and could be easily broken down for transport and assembled in the field. Like mortars they sent missiles on a high trajectory, ideal for indirect fire. They could also be loaded with ammunition too fragile to be fired from a cannon—gunpowder bombs and canisters of incendiary or caustic chemicals." ^[1] (KB: Added present code as trebuchet is sling siege engine according to codebook)

[1]: (De la Garza 2010, p. 123)

"Heavy infantry often carried simple missile weapons like javelins, slings and the chakram, a razor-edged steel disc that resembled an oversized shuriken." ^[1]

[1]: (De la Garza 2010, p. 145)

Used by cavalry. ^[1]

[1]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),pp. 90-102

"Heavy infantry often carried simple missile weapons like javelins, slings and the chakram, a razor-edged steel disc that resembled an oversized shuriken." ^[1]

[1]: (De la Garza 2010, p. 145)

Mughal armies used muskets. ^[1]

[1]: J.J.L. Gommans, Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500 1700. London: Routledge, 2002, p.158.

e.g. used by Akbar during siege of Chittor. ^[1]

[1]: J.J.L. Gommans, Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500 1700. London: Routledge, 2002, p.158.

"Babur makes many references to individual foot soldiers armed with bows. He also discusses a weapon particularly suited to the infantryman—the crossbow. Crossbows were especially valuable during sieges because they were ideal for sniping. Unlike a conventional archer, a crossbowman could fire his weapon while lying prone and behind cover. He could also keep it cocked and at full draw while carefully lining up a shot or waiting for a target to emerge. Babur describes his own experience as a sniper, firing a crossbow from the ramparts of Samarqand while that city was under siege. Before muskets became commonplace, the Ottomans used janissary infantrymen as missile troops, arming them with crossbows or heavier, more powerful versions of the cavalry bow. Babur may have employed similar large formations of foot archers. Once firearms were adopted they became the ranged weapon of choice for his infantry, but the musketeers were still supported by large numbers of foot archers." ^[1]

[1]: (De la Garza 2010, p. 58)

Composite Bows and Crossbows. ^{[1] [2] [3]}

[1]: J.J.L. Gommans, Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500 1700. London: Routledge, 2002

[2]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),pp. 90-102

[3]: De la Garza, A. 2010. Mughals at War: Babur, Akbar and the Indian Military Revolution, 1500 - 1605. The Ohio State University. Unpublished PhD dissertation.

New World weapon.

"More specialized troops like the shamsherbaz, or “gladiators,” however, wielded a variety of exotic weapons like two-handed swords, halberds and massive war clubs." ^[1]

[1]: (De la Garza 2010, p. 113)

"The common weapons in Mughal India were the sword, the bow and arrow, and the spear." ^[1]

[1]: (Eraly 2007, p. 293)

"The common weapons in Mughal India were the sword, the bow and arrow, and the spear." ^[1]

[1]: (Eraly 2007, p. 293)

"The handpike was the favorite weapon of the Rajputs; ’mounted or on foot, they have no weapon other than a short spear, with shield, sword, and dagger’, write Peleart." ^[1]

[1]: (Eraly 2007, p. 293)

"The handpike was the favorite weapon of the Rajputs; ’mounted or on foot, they have no weapon other than a short spear, with shield, sword, and dagger’, write Peleart." ^[1]

[1]: (Eraly 2007, p. 293)

"Says Tavernier about the weapons of the Golconda soldier: ’[...] Their cavalry carries bows and arrows, a buckler and a battle axe" ^[1]

[1]: (Eraly 2007, p. 294)

Cavalry used in Mughal armies. ^[1]

[1]: J.J.L. Gommans, Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500 1700. London: Routledge, 2002, p.158.

As well as horse-cavalry, elephants also used. ^[1] "But there can be little doubt that war-elephants were not used in the same numbers under the Islamic dynasties of India as they were in the early medieval period and before. We have seen that the Arabic sources described the most important ninth- and tenth-century Hindu dynasties as equipped with tens of thousands or more elephants of various kinds. Although it is unlikely that these numbers indicated war-elephants in a state of readiness - they probably included the guessed number of untamed and half-tamed ones -, and although some of the figures are contradictory, they are larger than those of later times." ^[2]

[1]: J.J.L. Gommans, Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500 1700. London: Routledge, 2002, p.158.

[2]: (Wink 1997, 102-103) Andre Wink. 1997. Al-Hind. The Making of the Indo-Islamic World. Volume II. The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest 11th-13th Centuries. BRILL. Leiden.

As well as horse-cavalry, camels also used. ^[1]

[1]: J.J.L. Gommans, Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500 1700. London: Routledge, 2002, p.158.

"The handpike was the favorite weapon of the Rajputs; ’mounted or on foot, they have no weapon other than a short spear, with shield, sword, and dagger’, write Peleart." ^[1]

[1]: (Eraly 2007, p. 294)

Chahar-a,inah - breastplate, backplate, connecting side pieces. ^[1]

[1]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),p565.

Dastwdnah - gauntlet or arm piece. ^[1]

[1]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),pp. 62-70

Leather straps used to hold amour together. ^[1]

[1]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),p. 565.

Steel headpieces with nose guards, or mail worn under them. ^[1]

[1]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),p. 563.

Jihlam coat of chain-mail. ^[1]

[1]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),pp.568.

Joshan steel breast plate. ^[1]

[1]: William Irvine, The army of the Indian Moghuls: its organization and administration (1903),p. 566.

Galleys were the main fighting vessel for Indian navies.

Used in the river systems of Bengal.