The Plantagenet Dynasty originated from a powerful aristocratic family from Anjou in France. Geoffrey, count of Anjou (from 1129) and duke of Normandy (from 1144), was the patrilineal ancestor of the Plantagenet kings through his marriage to Empress Matilda, the daughter of King Henry I of England. The nickname ‘plantagenet’ allegedly comes from the yellow flower planta genista that Geoffrey wore in his hat.
Though the monarch still had ultimate power in the kingdom, the period of Plantagenet England saw a move away from absolute monarchy. A series of conflicts with the powerful barons and the church led to the signing of the Magna Carta by King John in 1215; a treaty between the king and the barons with compromises on both sides, neither of which were adhered to, which led to a series of civil wars known as the Barons’ Wars in the thirteenth century.
The Hundred Years’ War with France (1337-1453) originated from a dispute over the French throne between the Plantagenets and the French House of Valois. There were three phases of the war separated by truces, but ultimately the Plantagenets were defeated and reneged their claim.
During this period a distinct English identity was shaped, which is still recognisable today. This was partly due to ongoing conflicts with their surrounding neighbours on the isle, the Scots, Welsh and Irish, but also with their distancing from relations with France. The English language was solidified and became the primary language of the country, eschewing the French and Latin languages which had also commonly been used. Through military campaigns, Wales was brought under English rule. The basis of English law and government administration also has its roots in this period. Despite the economic and demographic expansion of England in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, famines and the Black Death of the early fourteenth century curbed England’s growth.
The rivalry between the two main cadet branches of the Plantagenet dynasty – Lancaster and York – led to the War of the Roses (1455-1487). Elite in-fighting, civil war and succession struggles resulted in the male lines of both dynasties becoming almost extinct. This left open an opportunity for Henry Tudor (of the Beaufort family branch) to push his tenuous claim to the throne by defeating and killing Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. He assumed the throne as Henry VII and married Elizabeth of York (the daughter of former king, Edward IV). Through this marriage alliance the Plantagenet dynasty ended, and the period of Tudor England began.
[1]
[2]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
[2]: (Ormrod 2000) Ormrod, W. ‘England: Edward II and Edward III’, in The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 6: C.1300–c.1415, ed. Michael Jones, vol. 6, The New Cambridge Medieval History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 271–96, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521362900.014. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Y46E5QCH
| none |
| Early Modern England |
| Preceding: Norman England (gb_england_norman) [None] | |
| Succeeding: Tudor and Early Stuart England (gb_england_tudor_and_early_stuart) [None] |
| 70,000 people |
| 130,279 km2 |
| 5,000,000 people | 1300 CE |
| 3,500,000 people | 1350 CE |
| 650 |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| state salary | |
| land |
| present |
| unknown |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| absent |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| unknown |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| absent |
| present |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| present |
| absent |
| absent |
| present |
| - |
| Year Range | Plantagenet England (gb_england_plantagenet) was in: |
|---|
inhabitants. London had a population of around 70,000 people, perhaps more, by 1300. However, other larger towns are unlikely to have exceeded 20,000 (most being much less), making London the largest settlement by far. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 20) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
estimated population. There was a rapid population growth in the thirteenth century which led to a peak population of around 5 million by 1300. However, due to famine and plague in the early-to-mid century, the population fell again by about a third to a half of the 1300 numbers. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 9, 530-532) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
estimated population. There was a rapid population growth in the thirteenth century which led to a peak population of around 5 million by 1300. However, due to famine and plague in the early-to-mid century, the population fell again by about a third to a half of the 1300 numbers. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 9, 530-532) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
levels.: 1. Capital city: London had been the capital city of England since William I declared it in 1066. Its population far surpasses that of any other city or town at around 70,000 people in 1300. [1] :: 2. Major Towns:: Important larger market towns such as London, York, Cambridge, and Ely. They had cathedrals and were the official seat of a diocesan bishop. The larger towns had a surrounding wall. [2] ::: 3. Port and trading towns::: Trading emporium and market towns and ports such as Dover, Sarre, Southampton, and Ipswich. [3] [4] ::: 4. Villages::: Villages were generally situated with access to good ploughing land. It is often difficult to distinguish what may have been considered a village versus a small town. Villages were varied in layout and organisation – some were carefully planned, others grew up around a farm or village green. [5] [6]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 20. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.
[2]: (Prestwich 2005: 22. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.
[3]: Yorke 1990: 40, 65
[4]: Wright 2015: 34-36
[5]: Higham 2004: 10
[6]: (Prestwich 2005: 19, 22. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.
levels. [1] : 1. The King :: 2. Archbishops ::: 3. Bishops :::: 4. Archdeacon :::: 5. Priest ::::: 6. Chaplain :::::: 7. Ecclesiastical officials
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 69-72) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
levels.: 1. King :: 2. General [1] ::: 3. Commanders [1] :::: 4. Captains [2] :::::: 5. Knight Banneret [3] :::::: 6. Knights [4] :::::: 7. Knight Bachelor [5] ::::::: 8. Esquire [4] :::::::: 9. Cavalry [1] ::::::::: 10. Archers [2] :::::::::: 11. Infantry Soldiers [6] ref>
[1]: (Ormrod 2000: 290) Ormrod, W. ‘England: Edward II and Edward III’, in The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 6: C.1300–c.1415, ed. Michael Jones, vol. 6, The New Cambridge Medieval History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 271–96, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521362900.014. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Y46E5QCH
[2]: (Coss 2019: 41) Coss, Peter. ‘Andrew Ayton, the Military Community and the Evolution of the Gentry in Fourteenth-Century England’, in Military Communities in Late Medieval England: Essays in Honour of Andrew Ayton, ed. Craig L. Lambert, David Simpkin, and Gary P. Baker, vol. 44 (Boydell & Brewer, 2018), 31–50, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781787442221.007. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WIE6TS8M
[3]: (Simpkin 2018: 50-53) Simpkin, David. 2018. ‘Knights Banneret, Military Recruitment and Social Status, c. 1270–c. 1420: A View from the Reign of Edward I’, in Military Communities in Late Medieval England: Essays in Honour of Andrew Ayton, ed. Craig L. Lambert, David Simpkin, and Gary P. Baker, vol. 44 (Boydell & Brewer, 2018), 51–76, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781787442221.008. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4V56P62M
[4]: (Coss 2019: 37) Coss, Peter. ‘Andrew Ayton, the Military Community and the Evolution of the Gentry in Fourteenth-Century England’, in Military Communities in Late Medieval England: Essays in Honour of Andrew Ayton, ed. Craig L. Lambert, David Simpkin, and Gary P. Baker, vol. 44 (Boydell & Brewer, 2018), 31–50, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781787442221.007. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WIE6TS8M
[5]: (Simpkin 2018: 56) Simpkin, David. 2018. ‘Knights Banneret, Military Recruitment and Social Status, c. 1270–c. 1420: A View from the Reign of Edward I’, in Military Communities in Late Medieval England: Essays in Honour of Andrew Ayton, ed. Craig L. Lambert, David Simpkin, and Gary P. Baker, vol. 44 (Boydell & Brewer, 2018), 51–76, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781787442221.008. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4V56P62M
[6]: (Coss 2019: 40-42) Coss, Peter. ‘Andrew Ayton, the Military Community and the Evolution of the Gentry in Fourteenth-Century England’, in Military Communities in Late Medieval England: Essays in Honour of Andrew Ayton, ed. Craig L. Lambert, David Simpkin, and Gary P. Baker, vol. 44 (Boydell & Brewer, 2018), 31–50, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781787442221.007. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WIE6TS8M
levels.:1. King : The king was at the very top of all social and administrative hierarchies. However by this period he was more accountable to his council and the aristocracy, though ultimately, his decision on all state matters was final. [1] The kings council usually consisted of a mixture of trusted nobles, experienced officials (usually the chancellor and treasurer), ecclesiastical members, judges and sometimes a close and trusted member of his family. [1] Administrative duties were divided between the King’s Household, and the two central administrative departments: the exchequer and the chancery. The law courts were also an integral part of government. State and local departments were not truly separated, but they were hierarchical in the local officials reported into direct lines to the main state department. [2] ::2. The King’s Household The Kings Household was an administrative department that was responsible for a variety of duties and was a central hub of the government. It provided for the domestic and organisational needs of the court as well as [3] :: 2.1 The Wardrobe :: The wardrobe was the financial department of the king’s household and at times would out-rank the exchequer in terms of financial hierarchy. Orders issued under the privy seal to the exchequer and chancery came from the wardrobe. By the reign of Edward III the exchequer was recognised as the head department of financial administration, though when it suited the king, the wardrobe would be used to issue huge sums of money sum – without the consent of the exchequer – such as during the French War in the 1330’s and military campaigns. [4] ::: 2.2 Clerks of the Household ::: Responsible for the organisation of war, recruitment of soldiers and upper management, pay and board. [3] ::2. The Exchequer “The exchequer was divided into two sections, the lower, which dealt with money paid in and the issue if receipts in the form of wooden tallies, and the upper, which was the court where accounts were rendered and heard.” [3] It assigned revenue. [5] :: 2.1 Treasurer [6] ::: 2.2 Chief Baron of the Exchequer [7] :::: 2.3 Chamberlains [8] ::::: 2.4 Sheriff [9] :::::: 2.5 Under-sheriffs [10] ::::::: 2.6 Clerks [10] :::::: 2.5 Baliffs [10] ::::::: 2.6 Sub-Baliffs [10] ::2. Chancery The chancery issued writs and in the early period was closely linked to the King’s Household. However after being divided between Gascony and England during Edward I’s campaign in the 1280’s, the chancery became increasingly separate from the royal household and no longer followed the king around as the Household did and by Edward III’s reign was based permanently at Westminster in London. [5] :: 2.1 Chancellor [11] ::: 2.2 Sergeants [12] :::: 2.3 Masters :::: Twelve ‘Masters’ (senior clerks) ran the department and managed the clerks, curistors, and assistant clerks and servants below them. [12] ::::: 2.4 Clerks ::::: By the fourteenth century around one hundred clerks were employed. Records from 1324 show that they were producing about eighty writs and day – 29,000 in that year. [12] :::::: 2.5 Curistors :::::: Those who wrote standardised writs. [12] ::::::: 2.6 Assistant Clerks [12] The law courts were divided between the King’s Bench and the Common Pleas. ::2. The King’s Bench :: The King’s Bench travelled with the king in order to action any necessary legal work immediately. It also dealt with appeals from the lower courts and criminal matters. [12] ::2. The Common Pleas :: The Common Pleas was the court based permanently at Westminster and dealt mainly with property matters. [12]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 57. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.
[2]: (Prestwich 2005: 58, 60, 66. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.
[3]: (Prestwich 2005: 58. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.
[4]: (Prestwich 2005: 58-60. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.
[5]: (Prestwich 2005: 60. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.
[6]: (Prestwich 2005: 57, 59. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.
[7]: (Prestwich 2005: 59. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI.
[8]: (Prestwich 2005: 59) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
[9]: (Prestwich 2005: 57, 66-67) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
[10]: (Prestwich 2005: 66-67) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
[11]: (Prestwich 2005: 57) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
[12]: (Prestwich 2005: 60) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Soldiers and officers were employed by Dukes in their territories and for the King’s army. [1] [2]
[1]: Coss 2019: 40-42) Coss, Peter. ‘Andrew Ayton, the Military Community and the Evolution of the Gentry in Fourteenth-Century England’, in Military Communities in Late Medieval England: Essays in Honour of Andrew Ayton, ed. Craig L. Lambert, David Simpkin, and Gary P. Baker, vol. 44 (Boydell & Brewer, 2018), 31–50, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781787442221.007. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WIE6TS8M
[2]: (Simpkin 2018: 50-60) Simpkin, David. 2018. ‘Knights Banneret, Military Recruitment and Social Status, c. 1270–c. 1420: A View from the Reign of Edward I’, in Military Communities in Late Medieval England: Essays in Honour of Andrew Ayton, ed. Craig L. Lambert, David Simpkin, and Gary P. Baker, vol. 44 (Boydell & Brewer, 2018), 51–76, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781787442221.008. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4V56P62M
Soldiers and officers were employed by Dukes in their territories and for the King’s army. [1] [2]
[1]: Coss 2019: 40-42) Coss, Peter. ‘Andrew Ayton, the Military Community and the Evolution of the Gentry in Fourteenth-Century England’, in Military Communities in Late Medieval England: Essays in Honour of Andrew Ayton, ed. Craig L. Lambert, David Simpkin, and Gary P. Baker, vol. 44 (Boydell & Brewer, 2018), 31–50, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781787442221.007. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WIE6TS8M
[2]: (Simpkin 2018: 50-60) Simpkin, David. 2018. ‘Knights Banneret, Military Recruitment and Social Status, c. 1270–c. 1420: A View from the Reign of Edward I’, in Military Communities in Late Medieval England: Essays in Honour of Andrew Ayton, ed. Craig L. Lambert, David Simpkin, and Gary P. Baker, vol. 44 (Boydell & Brewer, 2018), 51–76, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781787442221.008. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4V56P62M
Bureaucrats were paid a salary, and those in the highest positions may be granted land or more lucrative appointments. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 60-70) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Bureaucrats were paid a salary, and those in the highest positions may be granted land or more lucrative appointments. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 60-70) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
There were two higher courts - The King’s Bench and the Common Pleas – and lower courts throughout the territory. . [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 60-61) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Settlements would have multiple food storage sites, particularly granaries.
Water supplies were present in all settlements. Though they were not well maintained and were often polluted due to the lack of hygiene. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 22) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Religious sites, palaces and castles, taverns and inns, universities, colleges and schools etc etc.
It is likely there were special houses for activities like brewing, religious meetings etc, but the sources consulted have not mentioned this directly.
The Roman roads built centuries before were maintained and still used as the major thoroughfares, but as the population of the time did not travel much, little effort was made to create new roads. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 24) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Ports were used for trading along the coast as well as to mainland Europe, and the in-land waterways were utilised by barges and smaller boats. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 24) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Bridges were present across the territory and were a vital for of maintaining communication across the country. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 24) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
trading emporiums would have been present along the coastal regions for foreign import and exporting.
Many major towns were enclosed by walls. Castles, palaces, and manor houses were often encircled by walls and moats. Animal enclosures were present across settlements. Farmland may also be enclosed to divide up tenants’ lands. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 409, 457) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Churches, cathedrals, cemeteries, large-scale event buildings such as Westminster Abbey.
A wide variety of legal, economic, administrative, personal and royal records exist. [1] Alexander Swereford wrote The Red Book of the Exchequer during his major overhaul of the economic records in 1234-35. [2]
[1]: Prestwich 2005: 57.
[2]: (Prestwich 2005: 59) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Royal and privy seals. A secret seal also came into use during the reign of Edward III, by which he would use his signet ring for private communications. In 1335 the Griffin Seal also came into use, for land and revenue business. [1]
[1]: Prestwich 2005: 58) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Abacus’ and chequered cloths were used as part of the accounting process at court. Wooden tallies were used as receipts. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 58) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Climate was of particular interest in this period. A cleric, William Merle, kept a detailed record of the weather between 1337-1344. As an agricultural polity, recording and analysing weather patterns was important for crops. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 4) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Works on a variety of subjects were produced, including management guides for animal husbandry, agricultural work, land and estate management, guides for the duties and performances of servants, and the same for state officials [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 429) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Evidence of philosophers such as John of Darlington who became a councillor and confessor to King Henry, and an Oxford educated friar, William of Ockham, who lived in Germany from 1328 and wrote philosophical works there, but no direct information had been found in sources as to whether any philosophical books were written within the polity. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 101) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Records for weather and climate were kept alongside crop and pastoral records. Census records kept in manuscript form. Ecclesiastical parish records. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 4-5, 591) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Popular histories were written, often on the history of the Britons, such as Brut. Bartholomew Cotton wrote a history beginning with the Anglo-Saxons up to present day. And the Mirror of Justice is a history of the origins of England focused on the arrival and domination of the Angle and Saxon chieftain. However, there were no ‘official’ histories written on behalf of the monarchy during this period. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 53, 561) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Romantic literature was popular during this period, as were the Arthurian tales written by Geoffrey of Monmouth. French literature was also popular. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 53, 557) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Coins were used as currency and there are no mentions of tokens in the sources consulted.
Silver pennies were the most common coin. Halfpennies and farthings were minted by Edward I but were uncommon. Gold coins were first minted under Edward III; Florins in 1344 and Nobles in 1351. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: xxiii) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
During the thirteenth century there was a substantial amount of low-quality coins imported from the Low Countries in circulation which often contained half the silver of an English coin. By spring of 1300 they had been demonetised. Bullion also circulated from the continent, as well as other foreign coins throughout the period. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 177) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Coins were used as currency and there are no mentions of articles in the sources consulted.
Palaces, the court, and homes of many high-ranking officials contained stores of wealth including treasury rooms, cash hoards, crown jewels, plate, gold and silver, chests and hiding places containing valuable goods. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 40, 73, 189, 272) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
The crown often took out loans from wealthy private companies or individuals. This was sometimes guaranteed against the royal crowns and other jewels. It is estimated the Edward III’s campaigns in the Low Countries left him with a sum of around £100,000 to merchants and moneylenders, and £200,000 to his supporters. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 272) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI
Horse relay or coastal ships would have been used as the fastest form of communication, but it is uncertain how long exactly they may have taken.
Time was usually measured by the monastic day, with services and church bells indicating the time and patterns of the day followed daylight rather than exact times. However, at the beginning of the fourteenth century a clock was installed at Windsor castle. It was run weights and struck the time. [1]
[1]: (Prestwich 2005: 23) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI