The kingdom of Majapahit covered much of the eastern half of the island of Java; it was founded in the late thirteenth century, when the war between king Waijaya and the ruler of Kediri concluded with the latter’s loss, and it gradually faded from relevance between the end of the fifteenth century and the middle of the sixteenth, as the Sultanate of Demak established its control over the main sea trade routes.
[1]
Majapahit experienced its apogee under the rule of Hayam Wuruk, also known as Rajasanagara (1350-1389): during this time, the polity extended its sovereignty over the greater part of the Indonesian archipelago, as well much of the Malay peninsula.
[2]
Population and political organization
Majapahit’s king was assisted by a hierarchy of bureaucrats which reached down to the village level.
[3]
Indeed, Majapahit was more centralized than preceding Indonesian polities, collecting revenue and products directly from its peripheries, as opposed to simply receiving them as tribute.
[4]
Majapahit’s population has been estimated to around 5 million,
[5]
, with a capital of about 200,000 inhabitants.
[6]
[1]: (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 823-284)
[2]: (Coedès 1968, 239-240)
[3]: (Kinney 2003, 49)
[4]: (Hall in Tarling 1993)
[5]: (Christie 1991, 29)
[6]: (Miksic 2000, 116)
| inferred Present |
| Unknown |
| Unknown |
| Unknown |
| Unknown |
| Unknown |
| Unknown |
| inferred Present |
| Unknown |
| Unknown |
| absent |
| inferred Present |
| inferred Present |
| Unknown |
| Unknown |
| Unknown |
| inferred Present |
| Unknown |
| inferred Present |
| Unknown |
| Unknown |
| Year Range | Majapahit Kingdom (id_majapahit_k) was in: |
|---|---|
| (1291 CE 1518 CE) | Central Java |
Established after death of King Kertanagara (1268-1292 CE) of Singhasari Kingdom when his son-in-law, Raden Wijaya (Kertarajasa Jayawardhan) founded a new capital and kingdom. [1] "The end of Majapahit itself is problematic: later Javanese tradition mentions saka 1400 (1478 C.E.) as the (symbolic) "end of Majapahit." But Ranawijaya still issues inscriptions in 1486 C.E., while Pigafetta, chronicler of Ferdinand Magellan’s round-the-world voyage, acknowledge the existence of Magepaher (Majapahit) in 1522 C.E. And a Mahapahit inscription of Pabanolan Pari has been alternatively read as having the year saka 1563 (1541 C.E.). The demise of Majapahit was probably gradual and nondramatic. It is very likely that with the flourishing of trade cities on the northern coast of Java (pasisir), and especially the rise of Demak as a strong Islamic sultanate, Majapahit lost its control of the sea trade routes, then became disintegrated and subsequently exited the historical stage." [2]
[1]: (Hall in Tarling 1993, 217)
[2]: (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 823-284)
Majapahit marked a transition to a kingdom with a more powerful centre which could collect revenue and products directly from outlying and subordinate areas rather than just receiving them as tribute or ritual offering. Tax and revenue is sent to the centre, but this relationship is mediated through watek ruled by individuals known as rakrayan, many of which would have once been independent chiefdoms which retained a separate but clearly subordinate identity, though the centre remained neither brave nor powerful enough to totally strip the power of this traditional elite. As time went on, the central court increasingly dealt directly with local indigenous temples and built trade links with the villages, bypassing the watek and offering local temples tax exemption or sima in exchange for loyalty. [1] Furthermore, the degree of centralisation increased throughout the Majapahit era - the idea of state evolvmed from fluid Indic mandala as described in the Tuhanaru inscription of 1326, but Jawa bhûmi as conceptualised in the Nagarakërtagama. In this formulation, the state is more stable and integrated politically and economically - it is distinguished from the larger territory that was said to be "in the orbit" of the Majapahit kraton. [2] However, the generally decentralized system also created powerful and autonomous enclaves in port areas. [3]
[1]: (Hall in Tarling 1993)
[2]: (Hall 2000, 59)
[3]: (Christie 1991, 37)
[1] Sanskrit chiefly used as a religious language by this point, though there are still some Sanskrit inscriptions to be found during this period. [2]
[1]: (Kinney 2003, 34)
[2]: (De Casparis 1991, 32)
Inhabitants. 200,000 is the figure given by John Miksic for the supposed capital of Majapahit located in the vicinity of a model village called Trowulan. [1] Within the walled kratons resided 700-800 families resided including 8 residential chiefs. [2] There is no description, however, of a settlement which can confidently be called a city. [3]
[1]: (Miksic 2000, 116)
[2]: (Hall 2000, 52)
[3]: (Christie 1991, 29)
Km2 0.5 Mm^2 One source says 2.7 EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://empires.findthedata.org/compare/60-150/Majapahit-Empire-vs-Srivijaya-Empire . However, while Majapahit had many vassals, it likely did not have much administrative power outside Java, Bali, and Madura, whose combined territory is c 0.14 EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://www.indonesianhistory.info/map/majapahit.html . Estimate of 0.5 reflects influence of navy.
levels.
1. Capital
2. Village3. Hamlet
Ruling class, religious authority, hamlets, non-farming sub-communities, commoners, slaves. Hamlets within villages came to increased prominence and became taxable units within the larger community. Other non-farming sub-communities emerged as regular features of expanded settlement complexes e.g. groups of artisans, small religious establishments, and merchant enclaves.
[1]
More broadly speaking, the state is characterized as consisting of villages (wanua), religious communities, and the royal compound (râjya), which was the social center
[2]
[1]: (Christie 1991, 36)
[2]: (Hall 2000, 60)
levels.
King; upper level bureaucrats functioning as intermediaries; mid level bureaucrats who needed to go through upper bureaucrats for favours; officials at village level; officials at central village level, both of which managed irrigation system and guaranteed supply of rice to capital in exchange for privileges. Kinney suggests that this administrative structure was carried through to the Majapahit era.
[1]
1. King.
_Central government_
2. upper level bureaucrats functioning as intermediaries
3. mid level bureaucrats who needed to go through upper bureaucrats for favours
4. Storehouse manager for rice5. Storehouse worker
village officials managed irrigation system and guaranteed supply of rice to capital in exchange for privileges.
[1]
_Provincial government_
2. Several villages (wisaya) Inferred from the preceding Kediri kingdomKediri "was the first kingdom known in Indonesia to have developed a stratified territorial administration, consisting of three levels: the village (called thani, which itself consisted of several subdivisions, each having its own name); the coordinated unity, made up of several villages (called wisaya); and the state or kingdom (called bhumi)."
[2]
3. Village (thani) Inferred from the preceding Kediri kingdom
4. officials at central village level Inferred from the preceding Kediri kingdom
both of which managed irrigation system and guaranteed supply of rice to capital in exchange for privileges.
[1]
4. Subdivision of village Inferred from the preceding Kediri kingdom
[1]: (Kinney 2003, 49)
[2]: (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707)
Hayam Wuruk’s court issued legal decrees which are described in epigraphic records. The epigraphic accounting is not a logical legal rendering, but reads as a ’dramatic literary record that tells the story of the eventual winner’. [1] Oral tradition continued to be more important than the conduct of justice in Java, however. [2]
[1]: (Hall 2000, 57)
[2]: (Reid 1988, 137)
[1] Majapahit rulers encouraged irrigation projects with tax incentives. They possessed a network of dams and irrigation canals. [2] [3]
[1]: (Miksic 2000, 116)
[2]: (Kieven 2013, 100) Lydia Kieven. 2013. Following the Cap-Figure in Majapahit Temple Reliefs: A New Look at the Religious Function of East Javanese Temples, Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. BRILL. Leiden.
[3]: Kestity Pringgocharjono. Soewito Santoso trans. 2006. The Centhini Story. The Javanese Journey of Life. Marshall Cavendish Editions. Singapore. p. 39
Sanskrit is phonetic - the spoken and the written always match. (EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://www.sanskritsounds.com/about-sanskrit/46/index.html )
Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [1] "At the time, Singapore’s defenses included not only the fortified earthen wall but also a stockade-type structure made of wood. The Singaporeans withstood this initial Majapahit attack, but that did not remain the case." [2] ET: Singapore had defenses of earth and wood when Majapahit attacked. Surely there were similar defenses in Majapahit, if not the capital city then some smaller towns. Since there was no explanation for the code of absent will change code to inferred present.
[1]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
[2]: (Abshire 2011, 23) Jean E Abshire. 2011. The History of Singapore. Greenwood. Santa Barbara.
According to Miksic the Majapahit capital did not seem to have any sort of defensive perimeter. [1] This does not mean that no town or fort in Majapahit had any type of defensive fortification. Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [2]
[1]: (Miksic 2000, 115)
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
According to Miksic the Majapahit capital did not seem to have any sort of defensive perimeter. [1] This does not mean that no town or fort in Majapahit had any type of defensive fortification. Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [2]
[1]: (Miksic 2000, 115)
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
It has been noted by historians that despite the aggressive military history from which Majapahit arose, its kraton was not fortified. [1] According to Miksic the Majapahit capital did not seem to have any sort of defensive perimeter. [2] This does not mean that no town or fort in Majapahit had any type of defensive fortification. Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [3]
[1]: (Hall 1996, 96)
[2]: (Miksic 2000, 115)
[3]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
According to Miksic the Majapahit capital did not seem to have any sort of defensive perimeter.
[1]
This does not mean that no town or fort in Majapahit had any type of defensive fortification. Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’.
[2]
[1]: (Miksic 2000, 115)
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
According to Miksic the Majapahit capital did not seem to have any sort of defensive perimeter. [1] This does not mean that no town or fort in Majapahit had any type of defensive fortification. Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [2]
[1]: (Miksic 2000, 115)
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
According to Miksic the Majapahit capital did not seem to have any sort of defensive perimeter. [1] This does not mean that no town or fort in Majapahit had any type of defensive fortification. Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [2]
[1]: (Miksic 2000, 115)
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [1] "’In this country they have made the city walls of piled-up bricks, the wall has double gates and watch-towers,’ wrote a Chinese voyager who went to Java fourteen centuries ago." [2] "At the time, Singapore’s defenses included not only the fortified earthen wall but also a stockade-type structure made of wood. The Singaporeans withstood this initial Majapahit attack, but that did not remain the case." [3]
[1]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
[2]: Hickman Powell. 1936. Bali: The Last Paradise. Dodd, Mead & Company.
[3]: (Abshire 2011, 23) Jean E Abshire. 2011. The History of Singapore. Greenwood. Santa Barbara.
According to Miksic the Majapahit capital did not seem to have any sort of defensive perimeter. [1] This does not mean that no town or fort in Majapahit had any type of defensive fortification. Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [2]
[1]: (Miksic 2000, 115)
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
According to Miksic the Majapahit capital did not seem to have any sort of defensive perimeter. [1] This does not mean that no town or fort in Majapahit had any type of defensive fortification. Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [2]
[1]: (Miksic 2000, 115)
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
Historical records show "good quality Indian steel" was reaching Ethiopia in 200 BCE [1] - did they also export across the Bay of Bengal? Island South East Asia: ’Bronze and iron metallurgy appear to have arrived together, perhaps after 300 BC’. [2]
[1]: (Biggs et al. 2013 citing Tripathi and Upadhyay 2009, p. 123) Lynn Biggs. Berenice Bellina. Marcos Martinon-Torres. Thomas Oliver Pryce. January 2013. Prehistoric iron production technologies in the Upper Thai-Malay Peninsula: metallography and slag inclusion analyses of iron artefacts from Khao Sam Kaeo and Phu Khao Thong. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. Springer.
[2]: (Bellwood 2004, 36) Bellwood, Peter. The origins and dispersals of agricultural communities in Southeast Asia. Glover, Ian. Bellwood, Peter. eds. 2004. Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History. RoutledgeCurzon. London.
[1] Island South East Asia: ’Bronze and iron metallurgy appear to have arrived together, perhaps after 300 BC’. [2]
[1]: (Charney 2004, 16)
[2]: (Bellwood 2004, 36) Bellwood, Peter. The origins and dispersals of agricultural communities in Southeast Asia. Glover, Ian. Bellwood, Peter. eds. 2004. Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History. RoutledgeCurzon. London.
Island South East Asia: ’Bronze and iron metallurgy appear to have arrived together, perhaps after 300 BC’. [1]
[1]: (Bellwood 2004, 36) Bellwood, Peter. The origins and dispersals of agricultural communities in Southeast Asia. Glover, Ian. Bellwood, Peter. eds. 2004. Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History. RoutledgeCurzon. London.
“Bronze metallurgy was practiced in at least Southern Vietnam, the islands surrounding the Sulu and Sulawesi seas, West Malaysia, South Sumatra, and especially Java and Bali." [1] Island South East Asia: ’Bronze and iron metallurgy appear to have arrived together, perhaps after 300 BC’. [2]
[1]: (Bulbeck in Peregrine and Ember 2000, 85)
[2]: (Bellwood 2004, 36) Bellwood, Peter. The origins and dispersals of agricultural communities in Southeast Asia. Glover, Ian. Bellwood, Peter. eds. 2004. Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History. RoutledgeCurzon. London.
Not listed: "Weapons, notably axes, clubs, swords, and daggers, seem to have been Indian, though the curved swords are of a later type than those on the Central Javanese reliefs. The reappearance of the spear in these reliefs, while the use of the bow is confined to human heroes, suggests an increasing pressure to resume use of local types of weapons." [1]
[1]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
Coded present based on this [1] source. "Weapons, notably axes, clubs, swords, and daggers, seem to have been Indian, though the curved swords are of a later type than those on the Central Javanese reliefs. The reappearance of the spear in these reliefs, while the use of the bow is confined to human heroes, suggests an increasing pressure to resume use of local types of weapons." [2]
[1]: (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (a), 707)
[2]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
Not listed: "Weapons, notably axes, clubs, swords, and daggers, seem to have been Indian, though the curved swords are of a later type than those on the Central Javanese reliefs. The reappearance of the spear in these reliefs, while the use of the bow is confined to human heroes, suggests an increasing pressure to resume use of local types of weapons." [1]
[1]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
"The reappearance of the spear in these reliefs, while the use of the bow is confined to human heroes, suggests an increasing pressure to resume use of local types of weapons." [1]
[1]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
"Weapons, notably axes, clubs, swords, and daggers, seem to have been Indian, though the curved swords are of a later type than those on the Central Javanese reliefs. The reappearance of the spear in these reliefs, while the use of the bow is confined to human heroes, suggests an increasing pressure to resume use of local types of weapons." [1]
[1]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
Coded present based on this [1] source. "Weapons, notably axes, clubs, swords, and daggers, seem to have been Indian, though the curved swords are of a later type than those on the Central Javanese reliefs. The reappearance of the spear in these reliefs, while the use of the bow is confined to human heroes, suggests an increasing pressure to resume use of local types of weapons." [2]
[1]: (Draeger 1972, 49)
[2]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
Spear and blades dominated Indonesian warfare [1] "Weapons, notably axes, clubs, swords, and daggers, seem to have been Indian, though the curved swords are of a later type than those on the Central Javanese reliefs. The reappearance of the spear in these reliefs, while the use of the bow is confined to human heroes, suggests an increasing pressure to resume use of local types of weapons." [2]
[1]: (Gaukroger 2009, 134)
[2]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
Pisau (short bladed knife), parang (cleaver-type knife), kris (double edged-dagger). Krises were worshipped as sacred objects with spiritual power and kris-makers themselves were regarded as being among the elite of Javanese-Hindu society, along with the nobility and priests. [1]
[1]: (Draeger 1972, 49)
"Weapons, notably axes, clubs, swords, and daggers, seem to have been Indian, though the curved swords are of a later type than those on the Central Javanese reliefs. The reappearance of the spear in these reliefs, while the use of the bow is confined to human heroes, suggests an increasing pressure to resume use of local types of weapons." [1]
[1]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
"After the formation of the Majapahit Dynasty, however, weapons and warfare underwent significant changes. The military dress completely evolved from the Indian to the East Javanese fashion." [1] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [2] The Borobudur reliefs depicted armour but do not specify which kinds. [3]
[1]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
[3]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
Coded present based on this [1] source but no quote/description provided. "After the formation of the Majapahit Dynasty, however, weapons and warfare underwent significant changes. The military dress completely evolved from the Indian to the East Javanese fashion." [2] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [3] The Borobudur reliefs depicted armour but do not specify which kinds. [4]
[1]: (Gaukroger 2009, 134)
[2]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
[3]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
[4]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
"After the formation of the Majapahit Dynasty, however, weapons and warfare underwent significant changes. The military dress completely evolved from the Indian to the East Javanese fashion." [1] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [2] The Borobudur reliefs depicted armour but do not specify which kinds. [3]
[1]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
[3]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
"After the formation of the Majapahit Dynasty, however, weapons and warfare underwent significant changes. The military dress completely evolved from the Indian to the East Javanese fashion." [1] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [2] The Borobudur reliefs depicted armour but do not specify which kinds. [3]
[1]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
[3]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
"After the formation of the Majapahit Dynasty, however, weapons and warfare underwent significant changes. The military dress completely evolved from the Indian to the East Javanese fashion." [1] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [2] The Borobudur reliefs depicted armour but do not specify which kinds. [3]
[1]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
[3]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
"After the formation of the Majapahit Dynasty, however, weapons and warfare underwent significant changes. The military dress completely evolved from the Indian to the East Javanese fashion." [1] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [2] The Borobudur reliefs depicted armour but do not specify which kinds. [3]
[1]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
[3]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
"After the formation of the Majapahit Dynasty, however, weapons and warfare underwent significant changes. The military dress completely evolved from the Indian to the East Javanese fashion." [1] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [2] The Borobudur reliefs depicted armour but do not specify which kinds. [3]
[1]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
[3]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
"After the formation of the Majapahit Dynasty, however, weapons and warfare underwent significant changes. The military dress completely evolved from the Indian to the East Javanese fashion." [1] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [2] The Borobudur reliefs depicted armour but do not specify which kinds. [3]
[1]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
[3]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
"After the formation of the Majapahit Dynasty, however, weapons and warfare underwent significant changes. The military dress completely evolved from the Indian to the East Javanese fashion." [1] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [2] The Borobudur reliefs depicted armour but do not specify which kinds. [3]
[1]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
[3]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
"After the formation of the Majapahit Dynasty, however, weapons and warfare underwent significant changes. The military dress completely evolved from the Indian to the East Javanese fashion." [1] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [2] The Borobudur reliefs depicted armour but do not specify which kinds. [3]
[1]: (Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
[3]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.