The kingdom of Kediri ruled over a territory roughly corresponding to the modern-day province of East Java, at least based on the locations where its rulers’ inscriptions have been found.
[1]
Midway through the eleventh century CE, the Javanese monarch Airlangga split his realm into two smaller kingdoms, each to be ruled by one of his sons: one of these kingdoms was likely Kediri
[2]
. The latter rapidly overshadowed its "twin": it was the first Indonesian kingdom to develop stratified territorial administration, it became known for the organization of its armed forces, and it even introduced bureaucratic officials specifically tasked with the management of the polity’s water resources.
[1]
Kediri does not appear to have collapsed: rather, in the early thirteenth century, the cente of power shifted to Singhasari, with the foundation of a new dynasty.
[3]
Population and political organization
Kediri was ruled by a king, who was assisted by bureaucratic officials. Moreover, as already mentioned, Kediri was the first known Indonesian state to develop stratified territorial administration: more specifically, the polity was organized into three levels, the village, the cluster of villages, and the state.
[1]
This suggests that there were officials in charge of administrating both village clusters and individual villages.
According to McEvedy and Jones,
[4]
Indonesia had a population of four million in 1100 CE. Given the fact that Kediri occupied a small portion of the archipelago, it seems reasonable to infer a population size of a few hundred thousands.
[1]: (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707)
[2]: (Sedyawati in Ooi 2004 (a), 134)
[3]: (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (c), 1208)
[4]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 196-201) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London.
| Singhasari Kingdom |
| continuity |
| UNCLEAR: [continuity] |
| nominal |
| [50,000 to 70,000] km2 |
| [200,000 to 300,000] people | 1100 CE |
| [250,000 to 350,000] people | 1200 CE |
| inferred present |
| present |
| inferred present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| absent |
| present |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| inferred absent |
| absent |
| inferred present |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| unknown |
| absent |
| absent |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| absent |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| unknown |
| Year Range | Kediri Kingdom (id_kediri_k) was in: |
|---|---|
| (1049 CE 1222 CE) | Central Java |
A political structure evolved that despite being decentralised, allowed a flow of income to the central government. [1] . Although this supported a sophisticated level of court life, there was still no centre of power and instead a number of principalities and vassal states vied for dominance. [2]
[1]: (Kinney 2003, 49)
[2]: (Kinney 2003, 83)
Kediri = ’Indian Mulberry’ in Sanskrit. (EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: https://visitingjava.wordpress.com/2013/10/31/kediri-city-of-cigarette/ ) The translations of Hindu epic Ramayana and Mahabharata into old Javanese language took place during the era of Medang Kingdom and Kediri kingdom around 9th to 11th century. (EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://southofvoice.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/javanese-people.html )
Kediri = ’Indian Mulberry’ in Sanskrit. (EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: https://visitingjava.wordpress.com/2013/10/31/kediri-city-of-cigarette/ ) The translations of Hindu epic Ramayana and Mahabharata into old Javanese language took place during the era of Medang Kingdom and Kediri kingdom around 9th to 11th century. (EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://southofvoice.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/javanese-people.html )
People.
Estimates for Indonesia (less West New Guinea): 4.0m in 1100 CE. 4.5m in 1200 CE
[1]
Total area of Indonesia (less West New Guinea) 1,500,000 km2.
[1]
On the basis of territorial extent, Kediri, which was 50,000-70,000 km2 may have had 3-5% of the Indonesian population. 200,000 in 1100 CE, 225,000 in 120,000 CE. Will use these figures for the bottom end of a range that assumes this well-organized polity was more density populated than surrounding regions.
[1]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 196-201) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London.
People.
Estimates for Indonesia (less West New Guinea): 4.0m in 1100 CE. 4.5m in 1200 CE
[1]
Total area of Indonesia (less West New Guinea) 1,500,000 km2.
[1]
On the basis of territorial extent, Kediri, which was 50,000-70,000 km2 may have had 3-5% of the Indonesian population. 200,000 in 1100 CE, 225,000 in 120,000 CE. Will use these figures for the bottom end of a range that assumes this well-organized polity was more density populated than surrounding regions.
[1]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 196-201) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London.
levels.
1. Large town e.g. capital Kediri/Daha
2. Village3. Hamlet
Ruling class, religious authority, hamlets, non-farming sub-communities, commoners, slaves. Hamlets within villages came to increased prominence and became taxable units within the larger community. Other non-farming sub-communities emerged as regular features of expanded settlement complexes e.g. groups of artisans, small religious establishments, and merchant enclaves.
[1]
"
[2]
[1]: (Christie 1991, 36)
[2]: (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707)
levels.
1. King
2. General inferred
3. Officer of higher group?
4. Unit leader"Every unit had a leader and a certain symbol put on its flag. Most symbols used a figure of an animal."
[1]
5. Individual soldier
"Aside from territorial administration, the Kadiri period also saw developments in military organization and mobilization. Troops were divided according to the mastery of different kinds of weapons, such as the club, the arrow, the battle-ax, and the lance, or according to mastery over different serving animals, such as the elephant and the horse."
[1]
[1]: (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707)
levels.
Increasingly hierarchical state administrative structure. By the tenth and eleventh centuries, royal command passed from the monarch through ’expansive networks of individuals with state and local titles of authority’.
[1]
1. King
"The capital, where the king abided in his palace, was called nagara, and the palace itself was called kadatwan. The denomination of the capital may, occasionally, be used as a synonym for the whole country. Based on the location where inscriptions issued by authorities of the Kadiri kingdom have been found, the territory of this kingdom can be identified as within the present-day East Java Province."
[2]
_Central government_
2. upper level bureaucrats functioning as intermediaries
3. mid level bureaucrats who needed to go through upper bureaucrats for favours
4. Storehouse manager for rice5. Storehouse worker
village officials managed irrigation system and guaranteed supply of rice to capital in exchange for privileges.
[3]
_Provincial government_
2. Several villages (wisaya)"It was the first kingdom known in Indonesia to have developed a stratified territorial administration, consisting of three levels: the village (called thani, which itself consisted of several subdivisions, each having its own name); the coordinated unity, made up of several villages (called wisaya); and the state or kingdom (called bhumi)."
[2]
3. Village (thani)
4. officials at central village level
both of which managed irrigation system and guaranteed supply of rice to capital in exchange for privileges.
[3]
4. Subdivision of village
[1]: (Hall 2000, 55)
[2]: (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707)
[3]: (Kinney 2003, 49)
no mention of drinking water projects: "Initiatives in the Kadiri state formation also including the development of water management (supposedly for both transportation and irrigation purposes). A special government official appointed for this task, the senapati sarwwajala, first appeared during the Kadiri period. A water-related professional that was first mentioned in Kadiri inscriptions was the undahagi lancang, the shipbuilder. Another official that likewise first appeared during the Kadiri period was the sopana, who acted as an intermediary between the king and those who needed the king’s favor." [1]
[1]: (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707)
Sanskrit is phonetic - the spoken and the written always match. (EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://www.sanskritsounds.com/about-sanskrit/46/index.html )
’The people make fortifications of wood...’ [1] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [2]
[1]: (Coedes 1968, 126)
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
Ratu Boko had stone walls as defensive structure. [1] Borobudur stone laid without mortar - this was a temple. (EXTERNAL_INLINE_LINK: http://syukranmuhaiya.blogspot.co.uk/2010/10/borobudur.html )
[1]: (Millet in Miksic 2003, 74)
In Medang period Ratu Boko had stone walls as defensive structure. [1] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [2]
[1]: (Millet in Miksic 2003, 74)
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [1] In Medang period Ratu Boko had a dry moat as a defensive structure [2]
[1]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
[2]: (Millet in Miksic 2003, 74)
Reference suggested a code of ’present’ for Medang period. [1] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [2] "’In this country they have made the city walls of piled-up bricks, the wall has double gates and watch-towers,’ wrote a Chinese voyager who went to Java fourteen centuries ago." [3]
[1]: (Millet in Miksic 2003, 74)
[2]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
[3]: Hickman Powell. 1936. Bali: The Last Paradise. Dodd, Mead & Company.
Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’fortress’ and ’siege’. [1] In Medang period Ratu Boko had a dry moat as a defensive structure [2]
[1]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
[2]: (Millet in Miksic 2003, 74)
Historical records show "good quality Indian steel" was reaching Ethiopia in 200 BCE
[1]
- did they also export across the Bay of Bengal? Island South East Asia: ’Bronze and iron metallurgy appear to have arrived together, perhaps after 300 BC’.
[2]
[1]: (Biggs et al. 2013 citing Tripathi and Upadhyay 2009, p. 123) Lynn Biggs. Berenice Bellina. Marcos Martinon-Torres. Thomas Oliver Pryce. January 2013. Prehistoric iron production technologies in the Upper Thai-Malay Peninsula: metallography and slag inclusion analyses of iron artefacts from Khao Sam Kaeo and Phu Khao Thong. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. Springer.
[2]: (Bellwood 2004, 36) Bellwood, Peter. The origins and dispersals of agricultural communities in Southeast Asia. Glover, Ian. Bellwood, Peter. eds. 2004. Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History. RoutledgeCurzon. London.
“Iron tools, best evidenced in Southern Vietnam, West Malaysia, and Java, were attached to handles (presum- ably wooden) via tangs, sockets, or shaft holes." [1] Island South East Asia: ’Bronze and iron metallurgy appear to have arrived together, perhaps after 300 BC’. [2]
[1]: (Bulbeck in Peregrine and Ember 2000, 86)
[2]: (Bellwood 2004, 36) Bellwood, Peter. The origins and dispersals of agricultural communities in Southeast Asia. Glover, Ian. Bellwood, Peter. eds. 2004. Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History. RoutledgeCurzon. London.
Island South East Asia: ’Bronze and iron metallurgy appear to have arrived together, perhaps after 300 BC’. [1]
[1]: (Bellwood 2004, 36) Bellwood, Peter. The origins and dispersals of agricultural communities in Southeast Asia. Glover, Ian. Bellwood, Peter. eds. 2004. Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History. RoutledgeCurzon. London.
“Bronze metallurgy was practiced in at least Southern Vietnam, the islands surrounding the Sulu and Sulawesi seas, West Malaysia, South Sumatra, and especially Java and Bali." [1] Island South East Asia: ’Bronze and iron metallurgy appear to have arrived together, perhaps after 300 BC’. [2]
[1]: (Bulbeck in Peregrine and Ember 2000, 85)
[2]: (Bellwood 2004, 36) Bellwood, Peter. The origins and dispersals of agricultural communities in Southeast Asia. Glover, Ian. Bellwood, Peter. eds. 2004. Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History. RoutledgeCurzon. London.
No mention of slings. Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [1] The switch-over did not occur until the end of the Kediri Kingdom: it was the Singhasari Kingdom that witnessed ’the decline of Hindu culture and civilisation in Java and the succession of Javanese culture.’ [2] Temple reliefs from earlier periods contain murals showing clubs, swords, bows and arrows, spears, shields, armour, knives, halberds. [3] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese: "war, weapon, sword, lance, armour, shield, helmet, banner, battle, siege, fortress, soldier, officer, enemy, spy, etc." [4]
[1]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[2]: (Rao 2005, 213) B V Rao. 2005. History of Asia. Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd. New Dawn Press, Inc. Elgin.
[3]: (Draeger 1972, 23, 27) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[4]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
Coded present on the basis of this reference. [1] Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [2] The switch-over did not occur until the end of the Kediri Kingdom: it was the Singhasari Kingdom that witnessed ’the decline of Hindu culture and civilisation in Java and the succession of Javanese culture.’ [3] Temple reliefs from earlier periods contain murals showing bows and arrows. [4]
[1]: (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707)
[2]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[3]: (Rao 2005, 213) B V Rao. 2005. History of Asia. Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd. New Dawn Press, Inc. Elgin.
[4]: (Draeger 1972, 23, 27) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
No mention of thrown spears. Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [1] The switch-over did not occur until the end of the Kediri Kingdom: it was the Singhasari Kingdom that witnessed ’the decline of Hindu culture and civilisation in Java and the succession of Javanese culture.’ [2] Temple reliefs from earlier periods contain murals showing clubs, swords, bows and arrows, spears, shields, armour, knives, halberds. [3] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese: "war, weapon, sword, lance, armour, shield, helmet, banner, battle, siege, fortress, soldier, officer, enemy, spy, etc." [4]
[1]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[2]: (Rao 2005, 213) B V Rao. 2005. History of Asia. Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd. New Dawn Press, Inc. Elgin.
[3]: (Draeger 1972, 23, 27) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[4]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
No mention of crossbows. Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [1] The switch-over did not occur until the end of the Kediri Kingdom: it was the Singhasari Kingdom that witnessed ’the decline of Hindu culture and civilisation in Java and the succession of Javanese culture.’ [2] Temple reliefs from earlier periods contain murals showing clubs, swords, bows and arrows, spears, shields, armour, knives, halberds. [3] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese: "war, weapon, sword, lance, armour, shield, helmet, banner, battle, siege, fortress, soldier, officer, enemy, spy, etc." [4]
[1]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[2]: (Rao 2005, 213) B V Rao. 2005. History of Asia. Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd. New Dawn Press, Inc. Elgin.
[3]: (Draeger 1972, 23, 27) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[4]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
No mention of the composite bow. Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [1] The switch-over did not occur until the end of the Kediri Kingdom: it was the Singhasari Kingdom that witnessed ’the decline of Hindu culture and civilisation in Java and the succession of Javanese culture.’ [2] Temple reliefs from earlier periods contain murals showing clubs, swords, bows and arrows, spears, shields, armour, knives, halberds. [3] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese: "war, weapon, sword, lance, armour, shield, helmet, banner, battle, siege, fortress, soldier, officer, enemy, spy, etc." [4]
[1]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[2]: (Rao 2005, 213) B V Rao. 2005. History of Asia. Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd. New Dawn Press, Inc. Elgin.
[3]: (Draeger 1972, 23, 27) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[4]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
Coded present based on this reference. [1] Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [2] The switch-over did not occur until the end of the Kediri Kingdom: it was the Singhasari Kingdom that witnessed ’the decline of Hindu culture and civilisation in Java and the succession of Javanese culture.’ [3] Temple reliefs from earlier periods contain murals showing clubs, swords, bows and arrows, spears, shields, armour, knives, halberds. [4] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese: "war, weapon, sword, lance, armour, shield, helmet, banner, battle, siege, fortress, soldier, officer, enemy, spy, etc." [5]
[1]: (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707)
[2]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[3]: (Rao 2005, 213) B V Rao. 2005. History of Asia. Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd. New Dawn Press, Inc. Elgin.
[4]: (Draeger 1972, 23, 27) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[5]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [1] The switch-over did not occur until the end of the Kediri Kingdom: it was the Singhasari Kingdom that witnessed ’the decline of Hindu culture and civilisation in Java and the succession of Javanese culture.’ [2] Temple reliefs from earlier periods contain murals showing clubs, swords, bows and arrows, spears, shields, armour, knives, halberds. [3] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese: "war, weapon, sword, lance, armour, shield, helmet, banner, battle, siege, fortress, soldier, officer, enemy, spy, etc." [4]
[1]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[2]: (Rao 2005, 213) B V Rao. 2005. History of Asia. Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd. New Dawn Press, Inc. Elgin.
[3]: (Draeger 1972, 23, 27) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[4]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
Coded present based on this reference. [1] Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [2] The switch-over did not occur until the end of the Kediri Kingdom: it was the Singhasari Kingdom that witnessed ’the decline of Hindu culture and civilisation in Java and the succession of Javanese culture.’ [3] Temple reliefs from earlier periods contain murals showing clubs, swords, bows and arrows, spears, shields, armour, knives, halberds. [4] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese: "war, weapon, sword, lance, armour, shield, helmet, banner, battle, siege, fortress, soldier, officer, enemy, spy, etc." [5]
[1]: (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707)
[2]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[3]: (Rao 2005, 213) B V Rao. 2005. History of Asia. Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd. New Dawn Press, Inc. Elgin.
[4]: (Draeger 1972, 23, 27) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[5]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [1] The switch-over did not occur until the end of the Kediri Kingdom: it was the Singhasari Kingdom that witnessed ’the decline of Hindu culture and civilisation in Java and the succession of Javanese culture.’ [2] Temple reliefs from earlier periods contain murals showing clubs, swords, bows and arrows, spears, shields, armour, knives, halberds. [3] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese: "war, weapon, sword, lance, armour, shield, helmet, banner, battle, siege, fortress, soldier, officer, enemy, spy, etc." [4]
[1]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[2]: (Rao 2005, 213) B V Rao. 2005. History of Asia. Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd. New Dawn Press, Inc. Elgin.
[3]: (Draeger 1972, 23, 27) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[4]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [1] The switch-over did not occur until the end of the Kediri Kingdom: it was the Singhasari Kingdom that witnessed ’the decline of Hindu culture and civilisation in Java and the succession of Javanese culture.’ [2] Temple reliefs from earlier periods contain murals showing clubs, swords, bows and arrows, spears, shields, armour, knives, halberds. [3] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese: "war, weapon, sword, lance, armour, shield, helmet, banner, battle, siege, fortress, soldier, officer, enemy, spy, etc." [4]
[1]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[2]: (Rao 2005, 213) B V Rao. 2005. History of Asia. Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd. New Dawn Press, Inc. Elgin.
[3]: (Draeger 1972, 23, 27) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[4]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
Coded present based on this reference. [1] Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [2] The switch-over did not occur until the end of the Kediri Kingdom: it was the Singhasari Kingdom that witnessed ’the decline of Hindu culture and civilisation in Java and the succession of Javanese culture.’ [3] Temple reliefs from earlier periods contain murals showing clubs, swords, bows and arrows, spears, shields, armour, knives, halberds. [4] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese: "war, weapon, sword, lance, armour, shield, helmet, banner, battle, siege, fortress, soldier, officer, enemy, spy, etc." [5]
[1]: (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707)
[2]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[3]: (Rao 2005, 213) B V Rao. 2005. History of Asia. Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd. New Dawn Press, Inc. Elgin.
[4]: (Draeger 1972, 23, 27) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[5]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
The Borobudur reliefs depict armour but do not specify which kinds. [1] Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [2] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [3]
[1]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[2]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[3]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
The Borobudur reliefs depict armour but do not specify which kinds. [1] Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [2] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [3]
[1]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[2]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[3]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
The Borobudur reliefs depict armour but do not specify which kinds. [1] Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [2] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [3]
[1]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[2]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[3]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
The Borobudur reliefs depict armour but do not specify which kinds. [1] Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [2] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [3]
[1]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[2]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[3]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
The Borobudur reliefs depict armour but do not specify which kinds. [1] Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [2] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [3]
[1]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[2]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[3]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
The Borobudur reliefs depict armour but do not specify which kinds. [1] Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [2] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [3]
[1]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[2]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[3]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
The Borobudur reliefs depict armour but do not specify which kinds. [1] Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [2] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [3]
[1]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[2]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[3]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
The Borobudur reliefs depict armour but do not specify which kinds. [1] Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [2] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [3]
[1]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[2]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[3]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
The Borobudur reliefs depict armour but do not specify which kinds. [1] Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [2] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [3]
[1]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[2]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[3]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
The Borobudur reliefs depict armour but do not specify which kinds. [1] Old Mataram was a ’highly Indianized culture’ until it was replaced by an East Javanese one "that increasingly promoted various elements of the island’s older indigenous traditions." [2] Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include ’armour, shield, helmet’. [3]
[1]: (Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.
[2]: (Unesco 2005, 233) Unesco. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Unesco.
[3]: (Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.
Professional seamen. [1] "A water-related professional that was first mentioned in Kadiri inscriptions was the undahagi lancang, the shipbuilder." [2] According to the Chinese the Kediri kingdom was an even greater maritime power than the Sailendra empire, controlled islands such as Bali, Borneo, South-Celebes. [3]
[1]: (Hall in Tarling 1993, 212)
[2]: (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707)
[3]: (Rao 2005, 213) B V Rao. 2005. History of Asia. Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd. New Dawn Press, Inc. Elgin.