The Amorites were a tribal group from the Levant area of Semitic descent. They migrated towards Mesopotamia and Amorite names can be seen in Mesopotamian literature throughout the 3rd millennium BCE. By the 2nd millennium BCE a number of Amorites had managed to gain control of Mesopotamian city-states in the power vacuum created by the collapse of the Ur III period.
[1]
Very early descriptions suggest they were nomadic, eating raw meat and "careless even of burying their dead", but at least part of the population settled into a sedentary lifestyle and took up the western Semetic language of Akkadian. The city and kingdom of Mari was an Amorite establishment.
[2]
One problem encountered when considering the Amorites as a polity is that they are frequently identified by their Amorite name, but it cannot be certain whether this corresponds to an individual who is actually an Amorite or if Amorite names are in general use. For example, the Isin-Larsa period is considered a separate polity from the Old Babylonian, Amorite Dynasty, yet the kings of both cities used Amorite names and titles.
[3]
The Babylonian king Sumu-la-el started to assert control over other towns in northern Babylonia and in the first few centuries of the 2nd Millennium Babylon became one of several city-states with a limited and fluctuating control over surrounding areas. This was the situation when Hammurabi came to the throne in 1792. By the end of his reign, he had conquered the whole of Babylon and briefly Assyria. He titled himself "King of the Four Quarters of the World" and "King of Sumer and Akkad"
[4]
[1]: Goddeeris, A. 2002. Economy and Society in Northern Babylonia in the Early Old Babylonian Period (ca.2000-1800 BC). Leuven: Peeters Publishers. p.8
[2]: Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.55
[3]: Goddeeris, A. 2002. Economy and Society in Northern Babylonia in the Early Old Babylonian Period (ca.2000-1800 BC). Leuven: Peeters Publishers. p.8-9
[4]: Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.65-66
| 38 S |
| Old Babylonian | |
| Amorite Dynasty |
| Babylon |
| Amurru |
| Mesopotamia |
| Sealand |
| elite migration |
| UNCLEAR: [elite migration] |
| nominal | |
| confederated state |
| present |
| present |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| absent |
| present |
| unknown |
| inferred present |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| inferred absent |
| present |
| Year Range | Amorite Babylonia (iq_babylonia_1) was in: |
|---|---|
| (1894 BCE 1596 BCE) | Southern Mesopotamia |
Reign of Hammurabi. Before his ascension to the throne, Babylon was one of several petty states of fluctuating importance. By the end of his reign he had gained control of most of Babylonia, taken the old title of King of Sumer and Akkad, and had, for a brief time, taken over Assyria.
[1]
[1]: Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.55
2000 BCE - Ur, of the Ur III period, fell to the Elamites in 2004 BCE. The Amorites are thought to have gradually filled the power gap left in Mesopotamian society. They became kings of city-states, establishing an Amorite elite that would become a Babylonian dynasty.
[1]
1600 BCE - At this time the Old Babylonian Dynasty came to end due to an invasion by the Hittites. The Hittites had established a rapidly expanding kingdom in Asia Minor and the king, Murshili I, conquered north-west Syria, then the land around the Euphrates until he reached Babylon. The city was quickly taken, but Murshili I returned to the Hittite capital due to political troubles where he was rapidly assasinated. The Kassite rulers consequently came to power in Babylonia.
[2]
[1]: Goddeeris, A. 2002. Economy and Society in Northern Babylonia in the Early Old Babylonian Period (ca.2000-1800 BC). Leuven: Peeters Publishers. p.8
[2]: Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.84
Until the reign of Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE), Babylon existed as a petty state. Kings of smaller city-states would pledge their allegiance to one of the bigger city-states thus creating petty states. The allegiance of the small city-states was constantly fluctuating, thus the size and influence of the petty states were also never constant. Babylon had the allegiance of a number of city states put each still had a king and Babylon’s influence was minimal.
[1]
Once Hammurabi started his military campaigns, he began exerting military power over former allies, such as Zimri-Lin, then further afield in Southern Mesopotamia. He soon claimed the title ’King of Sumer and Akkad’ and later had control of cities such as Assur and Nineveh, thus becoming king of Assyria. While major administrative changes occurred, many of the governing bodies of the cities remained and a significant degree of decision making remained in the former city-states.
[2]
[1]: Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.61
[2]: Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.65
Until the reign of Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE), Babylon existed as a petty state. Kings of smaller city-states would pledge their allegiance to one of the bigger city-states thus creating petty states. The allegiance of the small city-states was constantly fluctuating, thus the size and influence of the petty states were also never constant. Babylon had the allegiance of a number of city states put each still had a king and Babylon’s influence was minimal.
[1]
Once Hammurabi started his military campaigns, he began exerting military power over former allies, such as Zimri-Lin, then further afield in Southern Mesopotamia. He soon claimed the title ’King of Sumer and Akkad’ and later had control of cities such as Assur and Nineveh, thus becoming king of Assyria. While major administrative changes occurred, many of the governing bodies of the cities remained and a significant degree of decision making remained in the former city-states.
[2]
[1]: Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.61
[2]: Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.65
levels. (1) Large cities, (2) smaller cities, (3) towns, (4) villages
Large cities include the capital, Babylon, and others such as Ur, Eshnunna and Mari. They had monumental palaces and temples. After the collapse of the Ur III period, during the time of the city-state, religious centres had spread from Ur to the new city-states who established temples and religious centres of their own.
[1]
Babylon and other major city-states were able to gain power by dominating smaller cities.
[2]
Tell Harmal, the site of the ancient town Shaduppum, was under the rule of Eshnunna during the petty state period. It had a town wall, temples (used for administration), shops and domestic houses.
[3]
[1]: Gill, A. 2008. Gateway of the Gods: The Rise and Fall of Babylon. London: Quercus. p.56
[2]: Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.55
[3]: Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.70
levels.
(1) Petty state king/ later Babylonian king, (2) city-king/ later district governor, (3) arbianum (head mayor), (4) chairman of assembly, (5) shibutum (elders), (6) puhrum (assembly)
In the first part of the Old Babylonian period, the petty kings were of fluctuating, but reasonably equal standing. After Babylon conquered Mesopotamia, the Babylonian king became superior to all other kings and district governors came into being.
The Head Mayor and Chairman of the Assembly were positions elected by the Assembly. It is likely that the council of Elders were members of the Assembly from the most important houses, or most prominent positions, they were certainly superior. It is probable that any freeman or citizen could be part of the Assembly.
[1]
[2]
[1]: Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.68
[2]: Seri, A. 2005. Local Power in Old Babylonian Mesopotamia. London: Equinox.
A kind of professional soldiers were present: since campaigning was seasonal, soldiers fought for part of the year and then acted as a kind of police force. Alternatively they might spend their off period farming the land given to them in payment for military service as described by the soldier Ubarrum. [1]
[1]: Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.72
Before Hammurabi, cases were heard by judges in individual cities. These judges appear to have been "ad hoc appointments", probably appointed from the council of elders. Hammurabi established himself as the head judge of the empire, though there existed officials called ’judges of the king’ who probably made a substantial number of the judgements. In the provinces, the puhrum, elders and headman made judgements. [1]
[1]: Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.71
The Code of Hammurabi is one of the most famous artefacts of the period. While it is considered to be heavy with propaganda it provides evidence for the presence of a law code, even if it cannot be certain how it was actually implemented at the time. There are certainly many contracts and court testimonies surviving to be sure that a law code was in existence and implemented. In particular, the misharum was "a short-term measure, apparently proclaimed orally rather than inscribed on monuments, designed to alleviate social and economic distress" [1]
[1]: Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.55
Commercial activities were carried out in port-side areas called Karums [1] Babylonia was an area particularly short of natural resources, such as timber and stone, so it set itself up as a trader of goods between places such as Anatolia and Afghanistan. [2] There were many merchants selling their own wares. Shepherds had their own flock and kept institutional animals, they were required to give a certain amount to the temple, but could sell the excess. [3]
[1]: Crawford, H. 2007. Architecture in the Old Babylonian Period. In Leick, G. (ed.) The Babylonian World. London: Routledge. p.82
[2]: Gill, A. 2008. Gateway of the Gods: The Rise and Fall of Babylon. London: Quercus. p.65
[3]: Goddeeris, A. 2007. The Old Babylonian Economy. In Leick, G. (ed.) The Babylonian World. London: Routledge. p.200
Ports were important areas usually closely related to commercial areas called Karums from where goods could be moved onto other settlements. Ur had two harbours on the Euphrates and one on a canal. [1]
[1]: Crawford, H. 2007. Architecture in the Old Babylonian Period. In Leick, G. (ed.) The Babylonian World. London: Routledge. p.82
There is a large amount of religious literature from the Old Babylonian period, mostly relating to the new king of the gods Marduk, it includes hymns, prayers and incantations. One of the most famous texts in the Enuma Elish which, in its epilogue, describes the ascension of Marduk to supreme god. [1]
[1]: Oshima, T. 2007. The Babylonian God Marduk. In Leick, G. (ed.) The Babylonian World. London: Routledge. p.82
Shamshi-Adad had such a rapid courier service that he sometimes dated and timed his messages. Old Babylonia also had fire signals that could be used to send messages, though quite often the signals were not pre-established and the messages miscommunicated [1]
[1]: Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.70
e. g. Laz and Igi-kharsagga [1] , Dur-Sin-muballit [2] It seems that most settlements in Old Babylonia were walled and frequently had fortified gates. [3] Tell Harmal, the site of the ancient town Shaduppum was under the rule of Eshnunna, was surrounded by a wall with butressing towers. [4] What kind of defensive position?
[1]: Hamblin, W. J. 2006. Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. New York: Routledge, 173
[2]: Hamblin, W. J. 2006. Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. New York: Routledge, 176
[3]: Crawford, H. 2007. Architecture in the Old Babylonian Period. In Leick, G. (ed.) The Babylonian World. London: Routledge. p.82
[4]: Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.70
In the second millennium BCE, "Moats were becoming a common feature of city defenses". [1] e. g. at Kish [2]
[1]: (McIntosh 2005: 189) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD.
[2]: Hamblin, W. J. 2006. Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. New York: Routledge, 223