French Kingdom - Late Capetian

Paris. ^[1] -- need to check that the 200,000: 1300 CE figure is from this source
France c1300 CE 12 cities 20,000-50,000 population ^[2]
France c1300 CE 20 cities 10,000-20,000 population ^[2]
Paris may have grown from about 25,000 in 1200 to 210,000 in 1328 CE. ^[3]
Paris possibly 25,000 1200 CE. ^[3] -- [25,000-50,000]: 1200 CE where does the 50,000 figure in the range come from?

[1]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 120)

[2]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 118)

[3]: (Percy Jr 1995)

Paris. ^[1] -- need to check that the 200,000: 1300 CE figure is from this source
France c1300 CE 12 cities 20,000-50,000 population ^[2]
France c1300 CE 20 cities 10,000-20,000 population ^[2]
Paris may have grown from about 25,000 in 1200 to 210,000 in 1328 CE. ^[3]
Paris possibly 25,000 1200 CE. ^[3] -- [25,000-50,000]: 1200 CE where does the 50,000 figure in the range come from?

[1]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 120)

[2]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 118)

[3]: (Percy Jr 1995)

Paris. ^[1] -- need to check that the 200,000: 1300 CE figure is from this source
France c1300 CE 12 cities 20,000-50,000 population ^[2]
France c1300 CE 20 cities 10,000-20,000 population ^[2]
Paris may have grown from about 25,000 in 1200 to 210,000 in 1328 CE. ^[3]
Paris possibly 25,000 1200 CE. ^[3] -- [25,000-50,000]: 1200 CE where does the 50,000 figure in the range come from?

[1]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 120)

[2]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 118)

[3]: (Percy Jr 1995)

Paris. ^[1] -- need to check that the 200,000: 1300 CE figure is from this source
France c1300 CE 12 cities 20,000-50,000 population ^[2]
France c1300 CE 20 cities 10,000-20,000 population ^[2]
Paris may have grown from about 25,000 in 1200 to 210,000 in 1328 CE. ^[3]
Paris possibly 25,000 1200 CE. ^[3] -- [25,000-50,000]: 1200 CE where does the 50,000 figure in the range come from?

[1]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 120)

[2]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 118)

[3]: (Percy Jr 1995)

in squared kilometers. ^[1]
Territory of French Kingdom in Km2
1150 CE: 75,000
1200 CE: 80,000
1250 CE: 330,000
1300 CE: 350,000

[1]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113)

in squared kilometers. ^[1]
Territory of French Kingdom in Km2
1150 CE: 75,000
1200 CE: 80,000
1250 CE: 330,000
1300 CE: 350,000

[1]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113)

in squared kilometers. ^[1]
Territory of French Kingdom in Km2
1150 CE: 75,000
1200 CE: 80,000
1250 CE: 330,000
1300 CE: 350,000

[1]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113)

in squared kilometers. ^[1]
Territory of French Kingdom in Km2
1150 CE: 75,000
1200 CE: 80,000
1250 CE: 330,000
1300 CE: 350,000

[1]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113)

Population of France and estimate for French Kingdom
1150 CE - 7 million3 million
1200 CE - 10 million4 million
1250 CE - 15 million14 million
1300 CE - 18 million17 million
Population of medieval France derived from Turchin and Nefedov (2009). ^[1] Estimates take account of territory of France in the possession of the French Kingdom. ^[1]
Reduction of forest cover in medieval France (estimates) ^[2]
1000 CE: 26 million ha forest cover
1300 CE: 13 million ha forest cover

[1]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113)

[2]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 115)

Population of France and estimate for French Kingdom
1150 CE - 7 million3 million
1200 CE - 10 million4 million
1250 CE - 15 million14 million
1300 CE - 18 million17 million
Population of medieval France derived from Turchin and Nefedov (2009). ^[1] Estimates take account of territory of France in the possession of the French Kingdom. ^[1]
Reduction of forest cover in medieval France (estimates) ^[2]
1000 CE: 26 million ha forest cover
1300 CE: 13 million ha forest cover

[1]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113)

[2]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 115)

Population of France and estimate for French Kingdom
1150 CE - 7 million3 million
1200 CE - 10 million4 million
1250 CE - 15 million14 million
1300 CE - 18 million17 million
Population of medieval France derived from Turchin and Nefedov (2009). ^[1] Estimates take account of territory of France in the possession of the French Kingdom. ^[1]
Reduction of forest cover in medieval France (estimates) ^[2]
1000 CE: 26 million ha forest cover
1300 CE: 13 million ha forest cover

[1]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113)

[2]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 115)

Population of France and estimate for French Kingdom
1150 CE - 7 million3 million
1200 CE - 10 million4 million
1250 CE - 15 million14 million
1300 CE - 18 million17 million
Population of medieval France derived from Turchin and Nefedov (2009). ^[1] Estimates take account of territory of France in the possession of the French Kingdom. ^[1]
Reduction of forest cover in medieval France (estimates) ^[2]
1000 CE: 26 million ha forest cover
1300 CE: 13 million ha forest cover

[1]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113)

[2]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 115)

levels.
1. Capital city
Paris may have grown from about 25,000 in 1200 to 210,000 in 1328 CE. ^[1]
Regional City or colonial city (Kingdom of Navarre c.1200 CE)
2. Capital of a principalityFrance c1300 CE 12 cities 20,000-50,000 population ^[2]
Marseille, Montpellier, Lyon, and Bordeaux about
30,000. ^[1]
3. Large Town - with district administrative buildingsFrance c1300 CE 20 cities 10,000-20,000 population ^[2]
Avignon about 1300 CE population 5,000-6,000 ^[3] ballooned to 40,000 ten years after arrival of Pope ^[4] - 1319 CE.Provins over 10,000 population 1200-1300 CE ^[5]
4. Small town
5. Hamlet90% population lived in rural settlements ^[1]

[1]: (Percy Jr 1995)

[2]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 118)

[3]: (Spufford 2006, 169)

[4]: (Spufford 2006, 84)

[5]: (Kibler and Clark 1995, 1446)

King as divine ruler, especially encouraged by Philip IV who was the first of the Valois kings.
Note: hierarchy might need fine-tuning to conditions in Carolingian France
1. King as divine ruler, especially encouraged by Philip IV who was the first of the Valois kings.
1. Pope
Pope is primus inter pares among the five patriarchs. ^[1]
2. Metropolitans and archbishops"the term ’bishop’ applies to patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the ’ecumenical’ patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church." ^[2]
"The title ’archbishop’ emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan." ^[2]
3. Bishops and ChorepiskopoiBishops and Chorepiskopoi form one rank below the metropolitans and archbishops ^[1]
3. Priest"In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned." ^[2]
4. Deacon"Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. ... Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese’s finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople." ^[3]
4. Deaconess (diakonissa)"The deaconess’s chief liturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women." ^[3]
5. Subdeacon"The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon." ^[4]
6. Reader (anagnostesj"A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy." ^[4]
7. Minor orders"Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes." ^[4]

[1]: (Preiser-Kapeller 2015, Personal Communication)

[2]: (Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[3]: (Cunningham 2008, 531) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[4]: (Cunningham 2008, 532) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

levels. 6: 1150-1314 CE; 6-7: 1314-1328 CE
1. King

2. Constable (from 1091 CE)regional armies usually commanded by relatives of king ^[1]
senechal was the senior royal official, and senior military commander ^[2] - only until 1091 CE ^[3]
3. Marshal (sometime after 1226 CE - 14th century, by 1314 CE)Without responsibilities under Philip II and Louis VIII. ^[4]
gained military command duties in 14th century. Philip VI "appointed two marshals as second in command of the French army below the constable." ^[4] "Helped by a provost and some lieutenants, they were responsible for recruiting captains, inspecting the troops, and organizing the pay for the army." ^[4]
4. KnightDuring a crisis the garrison at Bordeaux had 4 bannerets, 23 knights, 227 squires and 192 sergeants" and local militia. ^[1]
Grand Master of the Crossbowmen (from 1200 CE) - additional level?
5. Sergeant"In the military context, sergeants were lightly armed fighting men who served and
supported knights." ^[5] Also had civilian "enforcer" role.
Mid-12th century professional sergeants equipped by nobles ^[6]
Infantry sergeants paid 9 deniers a day ^[7]
Also mounted sergeants ^[7]
6. Individual soldierlower level below Sergeant?
Militia leader (this level also called constable?)
Lead a milita, paid slightly less than a sergeant ^[7]
Captains ^[8]
Each city parish had its own captain

[1]: (Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 35)

[2]: (Henneman 1995, 1645)

[3]: (Henneman 1995, 486-487)

[4]: (De Vries 1995, 1122)

[5]: (Henneman 1995, 1658)

[6]: (Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 6)

[7]: (Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 10)

[8]: (Nicolle and McBridge 2000, 4)

levels.
1. King
Louis IX (reign 1226-1270 CE) began the rebuilding of the royal palace on Ile de la Cite, which was completed by Philip IV ^[1]
Philip IV (1284-1314 CE) strongly tried to link ruler-ship to divine origin. Persuaded Pope to posthumously canonise Louis IX.
_Central government_
Foundations of administrative system laid by Philip II. ^[2]
Philip II had "a small group of close counsellers who held offices with particular, if not always specialized, functions. Philip also employed royal agents in the demesne, and outside, to carry on the routine work of government and to enforce the changes which he introduced./ We speak of departments, and we know of the existence of a chancery and a chamber, but we should be mistaken to see these as entirely separated organizations. Household departments do not emerge until the reign of St Louis, but they were in the process of formation in Philip’s time. The close counsellors and the clerks could still move from one area of the administration to another, and often did.../ Central government was organized under a few major officials: the chancellor, the seneschal, the butler, the chamberlain and the constable. These originated as household officials with specific functions. By the beginning of the twelfth century these offices had been taken over by leading magnates. Under Philip, one or two magnates held such titles ... But the trend was to pass office, and sometimes title, to more humble men and their professional staff, for example marshals assisting the constables." ^[3]
"By the reign of Philip II (1180-1223), the Templars were effectively the French royal treasury. During the course of his reign, they increased the revenues from royal estates by 120 per cent, and were heavily involved in Philip’s restructuring of Capetian finances. During the thirteenth century, the Templar treasurer in Paris was always a man selected by the king, and the treasurers became trusted advisers to Philip and his successors. ... That the Templars proved themselves to be so successful as bankers is due in no large part to the meticulousness of their records, and their objectivity in dealing with clients. Records survive from the Paris Temple for the period 12 March 1295 to 4 July the following year, and they give a clear indication of how busy the Paris Temple was in its role as banker. ... There were more than 60 active accounts at the Paris Temple during this period, with the account holders being a mixture of royalty, clergy, important nobles and Templar officials." ^[4]
2. who replaced the senechal at this level?3. Department heads. Finance, Justice, Chancery, Treasury (from Philip IV - previously the treasury was kept by the Knights Templar at their Temple), auditors, law-courts (parlements), archives (muniments in tresor des chartres)Government departments within the Royal Palace, Ile de la City ^[1]
4. Lesser officials
Law courts Parlement De Paris from 1250-1790 CE
Philip II used non-noble officers to over-see courts ^[5]

_Provincial government_
2. Leader of semi-autonomous city-state3.4.autonomous urban governments had independent judicial institutions, legal system, and administration and managed its own relations with the church and the monarchy. ^[6]
Some cities were semi-autonomous city-states, e.g. Flanders ^[7]
2. Ruler of appanage3.4."Beginning with the sons of Blanche of Castile and Louis VIII (r. 1223-26), apanages became normal in France. By installing their sons as rulers, monarchs could control newly acquired outlying areas, as northern French nobles had long done." ^[8]
Apanage: "province or jurisdiction, or later for an office or annuity, granted (with the reservation that in the absence of direct heirs the land escheated to the crown)" - often granted to sons of the Capetian king ^[9]
2. Dukes/Barons/Counts who ruled principalities3. Principalities had capitals with their own mini-government system ^[10] 4.Example: the Dauphine of Vienne an independent principality (until 1349 CE). Territory from Rhone to The Alps. "Capital" city was Vienne. ^[11]
Example: Burgundy. Duke of Burgundy had his administration based at Beaune, which moved to Dijon in the 14th century. ^[12]
"Between 1120 and 1481, no lord in France is known to have made any regular use of prince as a title of lordship" ^[13]
3. District: Bailiff in a Bailliage (Northern France); seneschal in a Sénéchiaussée (Southern France)The basic provincial administrative unit of late-medieval France from late in the reign of Philip II ^[14]
bailliage and sénéchiaussé were administrative subdivisions of France established by Philip II after 1190. ^[15]
seneschals of dukes, barons, counts became royal appointees, continued their role as chief administrative officers. the lands under their control became known as sénéchaussées. ^[16]
baillis of royal provinces, particularly important under Philip II (1180-1222 CE) ^[17]
late Middle Ages 30-40 districts governed by a bailiff or a seneschal. ^[16]
4. Prévôt in a Prévôté.The district for which a prévôt was responsible was called the prévôté, and there were half a dozen of these in each bailliage. ^[18]
prévot farmed the revenues of the royal domain and rendered justice at a local level.
a "prevote" was a military region used in the raising of armed forces (end 12th century) ^[19]
5. Leader of a parishCities could be divided into parishes ^[20]

[1]: (Spufford 2006, 68)

[2]: (Spufford 2006, 67)

[3]: (Bradbury 2013, 249) Jim Bradbury. 2015. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. Routledge.

[4]: (Martin 2011) Sean Martin. 2011. The Knights Templar. Oldcastle Books.

[5]: (Bouchard 1995, 316)

[6]: (Pegues 1995, 1005-1010)

[7]: (Nicolle and McBridge 2000, 3)

[8]: (Medieval France: An Encyclopedia 1995, 97)

[9]: (Suarez 1995, 97-98)

[10]: (Spufford 2006, 74-76)

[11]: (Spufford 2006, 165)

[12]: (Spufford 2006, 154-155)

[13]: (Boulton 1995, 1430)

[14]: (Henneman 1995, 147)

[15]: (Pegues 1995, 1333)

[16]: (Henneman 1995, 1645)

[17]: (Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 10)

[18]: (Henneman 1995, 1427-1428)

[19]: (Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 6)

[20]: (Nicolle and McBridge 2000, 4)

Dates currently based on estimates.
Present: "By the first years of the 13th century the French king could maintain a virtual standing army on his frontier with English-ruled Normandy. ^[1]
Absent: Permanent command structure under Philip IV (reign 1284-1314 CE) but no permanent army ^[2]

[1]: (Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 7)

[2]: (Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 35)

Dates currently based on estimates.
Present: "By the first years of the 13th century the French king could maintain a virtual standing army on his frontier with English-ruled Normandy. ^[1]
Absent: Permanent command structure under Philip IV (reign 1284-1314 CE) but no permanent army ^[2]

[1]: (Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 7)

[2]: (Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 35)

Dates currently based on estimates.
Present: "By the first years of the 13th century the French king could maintain a virtual standing army on his frontier with English-ruled Normandy. ^[1]
Absent: Permanent command structure under Philip IV (reign 1284-1314 CE) but no permanent army ^[2]

[1]: (Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 7)

[2]: (Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 35)

Christianity

Professional sergeants in the mid 12th century. ^[1]
Permanent command structure under Philip IV (reign 1284-1314 CE) but no permanent army ^[2]

[1]: (Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 6)

[2]: (Nicolle and McBridge 1991, 35)

Royal mint. Offices of the government departments in Paris. ^[1] Philip II made an effort to preserve registers and government records for finance and justice in a dedicated archive. ^[2]

[1]: (Spufford 2006, 148)

[2]: (Bradbury 2013, 249) Jim Bradbury. 2015. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. Routledge.

Philip II used non-noble officers to over-see courts ^[1]
Department of Chancery hired university trained bureaucrats. ^[2]

[1]: (Bouchard 1995, 316)

[2]: (Spufford 2006, 68)

Professional administration in Paris from 1250 CE. " ^[1]
Professional maitres des comptes in auditing department. ^[2]
secretaries, or greffiers, of the Parlement de Paris. Records of its decisions, called the Olim, "and from the 14th century and thereafter they produced series of records of most of the
Parlement’s work." ^[1]
"By the reign of Philiph II (1180-1223), the Templars were effectively the French royal treasury. During the course of his reign, they increased the revenues from royal estates by 120 per cent, and were heavily involved in Philip’s restructuring of Capetian finances. During the thirteenth century, the Templar treasurer in Paris was always a man selected by the king, and the treasurers became trusted advisers to Philip and his successors. ... That the Templars proved themselves to be so successful as bankers is due in no large part to the meticulousness of their records, and their objectivity in dealing with clients. Records survive from the Paris Temple for the period 12 March 1295 to 4 July the following year, and they give a clear indication of how busy the Paris Temple was in its role as banker. ... There were more than 60 active accounts at the Paris Temple during this period, with the account holders being a mixture of royalty, clergy, important nobles and Templar officials." ^[3]

[1]: (Pegues 1995, 1333)

[2]: (Spufford 2006, 68)

[3]: (Martin 2011) Sean Martin. 2011. The Knights Templar. Oldcastle Books.

University required examinations?
Department of Chancery hired university trained bureaucrats. ^[1]

[1]: (Spufford 2006, 68)

^[1]
In 1260 CE Montpellier University had a law department and its graduates became judges and administrators in southern France in the 13th century. ^[2]

[1]: (Spufford 2006, 68)

[2]: (Pegues 1995, 1005-1010)

^[1]
Justice system with courts set up for fairs to enable dispute resolution. ^[2]
In 1260 CE Montpellier University had a law department and its graduates became judges and administrators in southern France in the 13th century. ^[3]

[1]: (Spufford 2006, 68)

[2]: (Spufford 2006, 146)

[3]: (Pegues 1995, 1005-1010)

French customary law not written down until 13th century. "Roman and canon law provided the inspiration for this activity. Customary law varied from one region of France to another, and the writing of such law took place within regional or provincial boundaries." ^[1]
Autonomous urban governments developed a legal system "neither feudal, Roman, norcustomary, that administered the legal needs of the urban population" ^[1]

[1]: (Pegues 1995, 1005-1010)

Law courts called parlements established at the Royal Palace in Paris by Philip IV. Justice administration "in the hands of parlements staffed by professional lawyers organized in three chambers." ^[1]
Under Louis IX (reign 1226-1270 CE), Parlement de Paris became the highest court of appeal in France. ^[2]
Justice system with courts set up for fairs to enable dispute resolution. ^[3]

[1]: (Spufford 2006, 68)

[2]: (Bouchard 1995, 317)

[3]: (Spufford 2006, 146)

Halles au ble ^[1] : Established by Philip II (reign 1180-1222 CE); Market in Paris for sales of wheat/grain. "French kings conceded fairs as privileges to some locales by regalian right, uncontested except in the case of the most rebellious of lords, such as the duke of Burgundy under Louis XI. ^[2] International fairs and markets not polity owned under patronage and protection of counts, who levied tolls: ^[3] Provins; Troyes; Lagny; Bar-Sur-Aube

[1]: (Spufford 2006, 99)

[2]: (Reyerson 1995, 640)

[3]: (Spufford 2006, 146)

Irrigation canals. ^[1] (from 10th century?). 12th and 13th centuries flaz and hemp cultivated from networks of shallow canals. ^[1]

[1]: (Glick, Steven Livesey and Wallis 2014, 115)

Cisterns. By 1000 CE most communities obtained water from rivers, wells and cisterns and this was still the case at the end of the Middle Ages. However, in the 11th and 12th centuries new water supply systems were developed which became installed in towns. ^[1] (within this time period?) "Pilgrims, crusaders, university students, and merchants would have encountered conduits and fountains in the course of their travels." ^[1] By end of Middle Ages ^[1] : piped water to public fountains; artificial lifting devices and water towers

[1]: (Glick, Steven Livesey and Wallis 2014, 505-506)

By early 14th century Paris had paved streets. Roads around Ile de France region also improved. ^[1] Royal toll stations, e.g. at Bapaume. ^[2] Mud roads linked towns. Major towns paved through-fares. ^[3] The Saint-Gothard pass, 1237 CE. Enabled overland travel "between northern Italy and Flanders via the Rhine, eliminating passage through Champagne." ^[3]

[1]: (Spufford 2006, 101)

[2]: (Spufford 2006, 162)

[3]: (Reyerson 1995, 1740-1741)

Bordeaux ^[1] Many ports at mouth of Rhone. Louis IX in the 1260s CE built a new fortified port on royal lands called Aigues Mortes. ^[2] Ports ^[3] North Sea: Montreuil-sur-Mer, Boulogne, and Calais. Mediterranean: Collioure, Agde, Aigues-Mortes (late Capetian), and Marseille.

[1]: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1256

[2]: (Spufford 2006, 171-172)

[3]: (Reyerson 1995, 1740-1741)

Bridge built over Saone at St-Jean-de-Losne. ^[1] Bridge of St. Laurent at Macon. ^[2] Bridge at Avignon 1177 CE over Rhone funded by alms givers. ^[3]

[1]: (Spufford 2006, 155)

[2]: (Spufford 2006, 164)

[3]: (Spufford 2006, 169)

"France possesses no precious metal resources and little copper. Iron ores are abundant, and there are regional deposits of lead, zinc, and coal. All of these were exploited during the Middle Ages. Evidence for ironworking exists from Merovingian France onward." ^[1]

[1]: (Hall in Kibler et al 1995, 1177)

Anything written by the era’s literati.

French language.

French language.

French language.

Bible.

"academic community may have numbered 3,000 or 4,000 by the end of the 12th century.Whatever the precise number, by 1200 Paris was the leading center in Europe for the study of the Liberal Arts and theology" ^[1]

[1]: (Radding 1995, 1775-1779)

University of Paris established. Paris was a cultural and intellectual centre. ^[1] "great collection of customary law made by Philippe de Beaumanoir ca. 1283, the Coutumes de Clermont en Beauvaisis." ^[2]

[1]: (Clark and Henneman 1995, 1327)

[2]: (Pegues 1995, 1005-1010)

Schools of Paris early 1140s CE: Abélard, Albéric de Monte, Robert of Melun, Peter Helias, Adam du Petit-Pont, Gilbert of Poitiers, Thierry of Chartres, and Peter Lombard. ^[1]

[1]: (Radding 1995, 1775-1779)

Weight standard of Troyes - became an international standard ^[1]

[1]: (Spufford 2006, 146)

Biography of Louis IX by Joinville. ^[1]

[1]: (Bouchard 1995, 317)

"Secular Latin plays were produced in the 12th century alongside religious and liturgical drama." ^[1] "By the late 12th century, plays were being written in French, though a few nonliturgical Latin plays were also performed." ^[2] Miracle plays, written for the Guild of Parisian Goldsmiths, 14th Century. ^[3]

[1]: (Bates 1995, 1716 CE)

[2]: (Knight 1995, 1714 CE)

[3]: (Knight 1995, 1714-1715 CE)

"Philip II to Louis IX gradually standardized coinage into two main types, the denier of Paris, called the parisis, and that of Tours, the tournois, with a specific relationship between the two. Barons in France continued to mint coins, but the kings increasingly interferred, and in 1263 Louis IX established the principle that royal money be acceptable as legal tender throughout the kingdom." ^[1] Local mint in Provins operated since the 10th century: By 1170s CE provided the dominant currency in Eastern France and widely used as far as central Italy. ^[2] ; Minted silver deniers, called provinois ^[3] ; These were the coins of the Champagne Fairs ^[3] ; Later the Provins mint struck royal money, the denier tournois ^[4] ; Philip IV moved the royal mint from Provins to Troyes. ^[4] ; Silver until Philip IV (reign 1284-1314 CE) reintroduced gold coinage.

[1]: (Hunt and Murry, 1999 46)

[2]: (Spufford 2006, 146)

[3]: (Spufford 2006, 149)

[4]: (Spufford 2006, 148)

Foot messengers and couriers. ^[1] End of 13th century there were "specialised carriers" of goods from Italian merchants in Italy. They could deliver spices directly to Paris. This by-passed and helped lead to the demise of the International Fairs. ^[2]

[1]: (Boyer 1995, 1748-1751)

[2]: (Spufford 2006, 148)

A Bailey consists of a ditch with a wooden rampart. "In the 11th century, local rulers led in the construction of fortifications, at first small earth and wood motte-and-bailey castles, but soon larger and stronger structures of masonry." ^[1] Motte and bailey castles proliferated. ^[2]

[1]: (DeVries in Kibler et al 1995, 1838)

[2]: (Hallam and Everard 2014) Elizabeth M Hallam. Judith Everard. 2014. Capetian France 987-1328. Second Edition. Routledge. London.

From the 11th century, local rulers constructed earth and wood "motte-and-bailey castles" and later built with stone. ^[1] Fortified towns ^[2] Fortified port Aigues Mortes ^[3]

[1]: (De Vries 1995, 1837-1839)

[2]: (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 128)

[3]: (Spufford 2006, 172)

Motte and bailey castles proliferated. ^[1]

[1]: (Hallam and Everard 2014) Elizabeth M Hallam. Judith Everard. 2014. Capetian France 987-1328. Second Edition. Routledge. London.

"The so-called Palace of the Viscounts was actually built, according to Héliot, in the 13th century by Simon de Montfort and especially Louis IX. Constructed of rough-worked sandstone, it is surrounded on three sides by a deep moat and protected by nine towers." ^[1] "At the height of the Middle Ages, great castles were built with deep, defensive ditches or moats and several concentric rings of stone walls reinforced with towers that required attackers to fight their way through several layers of defense to achieve victory." ^[2]

[1]: (Kibler in Kibler et al 1995, 322)

[2]: (Newman 2001, 75) Paul B Newman. 2001. Daily Life in the Middle Ages. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Jefferson.

Motte and bailey castles proliferated. ^[1]

[1]: (Hallam and Everard 2014) Elizabeth M Hallam. Judith Everard. 2014. Capetian France 987-1328. Second Edition. Routledge. London.

"In the 11th century, local rulers led in the construction of fortifications, at first small earth and wood motte-and-bailey castles, but soon larger and stronger structures of masonry." ^[1] Motte and bailey castles proliferated. ^[2] Baileys (ditch and wooden rampart) "Built at Eure in Normandy in 1196-98 at the behest of the English king Richard the Lionhearted, Château-Gaillard stands on a precipitous cliff 300 feet above the Seine River. The castle consists of three baileys arranged in a line, with a donjon, which may have been a later addition, standing on the edge of the precipice, principally within but also projecting outside of the inner bailey." ^[3] "At the height of the Middle Ages, great castles were built with deep, defensive ditches or moats and several concentric rings of stone walls reinforced with towers that required attackers to fight their way through several layers of defense to achieve victory." ^[4]

[1]: (DeVries in Kibler et al 1995, 1838)

[2]: (Hallam and Everard 2014) Elizabeth M Hallam. Judith Everard. 2014. Capetian France 987-1328. Second Edition. Routledge. London.

[3]: (DeVries in Kibler et al 1995, 401)

[4]: (Newman 2001, 75) Paul B Newman. 2001. Daily Life in the Middle Ages. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Jefferson.

From the 11th century, local rulers constructed earth and wood "motte-and-bailey castles" and later built with stone. ^[1] "At the height of the Middle Ages, great castles were built with deep, defensive ditches or moats and several concentric rings of stone walls reinforced with towers that required attackers to fight their way through several layers of defense to achieve victory." ^[2]

[1]: (De Vries 1995, 1837-1839)

[2]: (Newman 2001, 75) Paul B Newman. 2001. Daily Life in the Middle Ages. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Jefferson.

Writing in the 14th century, Ibn Hudhayl "described Frankish swords as mudakkar with ’steel edges on an iron body, unlike those of India.’" ^[1] "The carbon content of Western blades is much lower, but their hardness can be increased by quenching (an easier process when only thin bands of steel along the edges are involved). Despite the evident superiority of crucible steels, Western blades offered a useful combination of properties, at presumably a much lower price, than Oriental ones, and there are references to their being exported to Muslim lands, for examples, Saracen pirates demanded 150 Carolingian swords as part of the ransom for Archbishop Rotland of Arles in 869." ^[2]

[1]: (Williams 2012, 35) Alan Williams. 2012. The Sword and the Crucible: A History of the Metallurgy of European Swords Up to the 16th Century. BRILL. Leiden.

[2]: (Williams 2012, 36) Alan Williams. 2012. The Sword and the Crucible: A History of the Metallurgy of European Swords Up to the 16th Century. BRILL. Leiden.

c1250-1330 CE: "development of weapons capable of piercing mail: the gradual introduction of pieces of plate (at first of whalebone, horn, and boiled leather, as well as of the iron and steel that ultimately prevailed) to cover an ever larger part of the mail). By 1330, every part of the body of a knight was normally protected by one or several plates... By 1410, the various pieces of plate, including a breastplate and backplate instead of the earlier coat of plates, were all connected by straps and rivets in an articulated suit, or ’harness,’ of polished steel." ^[1]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

Bronze possibly used in the construction of wooden shields. ^[1]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

Bronze possibly used in the construction of wooden shields. ^[1]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

Motte and Bailey castles proliferated ^[1] so siege warfare no doubt increased in this period. Traction trebuchets preceded counter-weight trebuchets. "A drawing of a thirteenth-century stone carving at the Church of Saint-Nazaire in Carcassonne that is believed to depict the siege of Toulouse in 1218. It shows a traction trebuchet, and illustrates two important points. First, some of the hauliers (who include a woman in their number) are pulling horizontally, a method that is implied by Chinese illustrations. Second, there is apparently a heavy weight on the pulling end of the beam to assist the effort, thus showing the transition of the traction trebuchet toward the full counterweight version with no hauliers." ^[2]

[1]: (Hallam and Everard 2014) Elizabeth M Hallam. Judith Everard. 2014. Capetian France 987-1328. Second Edition. Routledge. London.

[2]: (Turnball 2002) Turnball, S. 2002. Siege Weapons of the Far East (1): AD 612-1300. Osprey Publishing.

Simon de Montford’s stone throwing trebuchets. ^{[1] [2]} First use of the counter-weight trebuchet 1165 CE at Byzantine siege of Zevgminon. ^[2]

[1]: (Nicolle 1991, 15)

[2]: (Turnball 2002) Turnball, S. 2002. Siege Weapons of the Far East (1): AD 612-1300. Osprey Publishing.

Simon de Montford’s stone throwing trebuchets. ^{[1] [2]} First use of the counter-weight trebuchet 1165 CE at Byzantine siege of Zevgminon. ^[2]

[1]: (Nicolle 1991, 15)

[2]: (Turnball 2002) Turnball, S. 2002. Siege Weapons of the Far East (1): AD 612-1300. Osprey Publishing.

Simple bow was little used. ^[1] Was it used a little? With the influx of crossbows, the use of short bows died out in French armies, and by the 13th century they were not considered a weapon of war. ^[2] Indicative: In the 1475-1477 Swiss-Burgundian War, Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, hired Italian and English mercenaries - especially English longbowmen." ^[3]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

[2]: (De Vries in Kibler et al 1995, 114)

[3]: (Devries and Smith 2007, 166) Kelly Devries. Robert D Smith. 2007. Medieval Weapons: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.

Simple bow was little used. ^[1] Was it used a little? With the influx of crossbows, the use of short bows died out in French armies, and by the 13th century they were not considered a weapon of war. ^[2] Indicative: In the 1475-1477 Swiss-Burgundian War, Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, hired Italian and English mercenaries - especially English longbowmen." ^[3]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

[2]: (De Vries in Kibler et al 1995, 114)

[3]: (Devries and Smith 2007, 166) Kelly Devries. Robert D Smith. 2007. Medieval Weapons: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.

No mention of javelin in this review of medieval weapons in France. ^[1] Weapons that might challenge the military order were suppressed, especially missile bases weapons, like javelins. ^[2]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

[2]: (Nicolle 1991, 8) David Nicolle. 2000. French Armies Of The Hundred Years War. Osprey Publishing. Oxford.

First handguns after c1350 CE. ^[1]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

Cannon used in greater numbers late 14th century, and at sea. ^[1]

[1]: (Nicolle 2000, 21-22)

Crossbow/arbaleste reintroduced c950 CE. ^[1] "The rise of crossbows lead to the virtual disappearance of the simple bows as war weapons in France and no hand bows are recorded in surviving castle inventories from 1230 to the mid-14th century." ^[2] Crossbow armed infantry gained in importance during the 13th century. ^[3]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

[2]: (Nicolle 1991, 11-12)

[3]: (Nicolle 1991, 11)

Composite bows. ^[1] Designated unit in army from 11th century ^[1] Designated unit in army from 11th century ^[1]

[1]: (De Vries 1995, 114)

New World weapon.

"Lesser weapons were also employed by knights after 1050. Special forms of ax, hammer (bec), mace, club, and flail were introduced in the 12th and 13th centuries to supplement the sword, but it was only after 1300 that these were both fully developed and commonly used." ^[1] Mace armed cavalry at Battle of Bouvines. ^[2] Maces used by infantry in 13th century. ^[3]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

[2]: (Nicolle 1991, 10)

[3]: (Nicolle 1991, 12)

Long, straight, double-edged, sword. ^[1]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

Lance/spear. ^[1]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

New forms of polearm introduced in the 14th and 15th centuries ^[1] - implies there were old forms of polearm, or spears used as a polearm. Early 13th century Brabancon mercenaries from modern Brabant, Belgium fought with pikes or long spears. ^[2]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

[2]: (Nicolle 1991, 10)

Most knights and squires used a dagger after 1350 CE ^[1] but maybe in use more rarely before this time as well?

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

Common 12th century infantry weapon. ^[1] "Lesser weapons were also employed by knights after 1050. Special forms of ax, hammer (bec), mace, club, and flail were introduced in the 12th and 13th centuries to supplement the sword, but it was only after 1300 that these were both fully developed and commonly used." ^[2]

[1]: (Nicolle 1991, 6)

[2]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

War horses brought from Italy. ^[1] Lance armed cavalry (late 12th century) ^[2] Aristocrats "usually dismounted and fought on foot throughout the Merovingian, Carolingian, and post-Carolingian periods." ^[3] 12th century saddle innovations made the horseback charge with a lance possible. ^[4]

[1]: (Spufford 2006, 156, 167)

[2]: (Nicolle 1991, 4-5)

[3]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

[4]: (Fanning 1995, 346)

Medieval armour was much like that worn by Germanic warriors in 100 CE still consisting of a shield, helmet and coat. ^[1]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

Medieval armour was much like that worn by Germanic warriors in 100 CE still consisting of a shield, helmet and coat. ^[1] Rarely carried from mid-14th century. ^[2]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

[2]: (Nicolle 2000, 15)

The miles (mounted knight) was the core fighting unit and in this period he became a landed aristocrat. ^[1] Called a "heavy cavalryman" ^[1] which implies at least the wealthiest nobles had access to the full panoply of armour.

[1]: (Hallam and Everard 2014) Elizabeth M Hallam. Judith Everard. 2014. Capetian France 987-1328. Second Edition. Routledge. London.

The miles (mounted knight) was the core fighting unit and in this period he became a landed aristocrat. ^[1] Called a "heavy cavalryman". ^[1] Coat of plates "a defence made of several butted plates attached to a poncho-like fabric garment". ^[2] c1250-1330 CE: "development of weapons capable of piercing mail: the gradual introduction of pieces of plate (at first of whalebone, horn, and boiled leather, as well as of the iron and steel that ultimately prevailed) to cover an ever larger part of the mail). By 1330, every part of the body of a knight was nomally protected by one or several plates... By 1410, the various pieces of plate, including a breastplate and backplate instead of the earlier coat of plates, were all connected by straps and rivets in an articulated suit, or ’harness,’ of polished steel." ^[3]

[1]: (Hallam and Everard 2014) Elizabeth M Hallam. Judith Everard. 2014. Capetian France 987-1328. Second Edition. Routledge. London.

[2]: (Nicolle 2000, 15)

[3]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

The miles (mounted knight) was the core fighting unit and in this period he became a landed aristocrat. ^[1] Called a "heavy cavalryman". ^[1] Coat of plates "a defence made of several butted plates attached to a poncho-like fabric garment". ^[2] c1250-1330 CE: "development of weapons capable of piercing mail: the gradual introduction of pieces of plate (at first of whalebone, horn, and boiled leather, as well as of the iron and steel that ultimately prevailed) to cover an ever larger part of the mail). By 1330, every part of the body of a knight was nomally protected by one or several plates... By 1410, the various pieces of plate, including a breastplate and backplate instead of the earlier coat of plates, were all connected by straps and rivets in an articulated suit, or ’harness,’ of polished steel." ^[3]

[1]: (Hallam and Everard 2014) Elizabeth M Hallam. Judith Everard. 2014. Capetian France 987-1328. Second Edition. Routledge. London.

[2]: (Nicolle 2000, 15)

[3]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

9th CE neck guard (halsbergen). Late 12th CE elbow and wrist protection, then mittens, and mail leggings (chausses) now became very widely used. ^[1] Miles of 12th century wore leg armour. ^{[2] [3]}

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

[2]: (Nicolle 1991, 6)

[3]: 13th and 14th centuries. (Nicolle 2000, 15-17)

Medieval armour was much like that worn by Germanic warriors in 100 CE still consisting of a shield, helmet and coat (usually mail). ^[1] From 1150 CE a surcoat "generally sleeveless cloth coat probably borrowed from the Muslims - over the coat of mail." ^[1] Early 13th century Brabancon mercenaries often wore leather, quilted armour. ^[2] Whalebone, horn, boiled leather used as plate. ^[1]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

[2]: (Nicolle 1991, 10)

The miles (mounted knight) was the core fighting unit and in this period he became a landed aristocrat. ^[1] Called a "heavy cavalryman" ^[1] which implies at least the wealthiest nobles had access to the full panoply of armour.

[1]: (Hallam and Everard 2014) Elizabeth M Hallam. Judith Everard. 2014. Capetian France 987-1328. Second Edition. Routledge. London.

Medieval armour was much like that worn by Germanic warriors in 100 CE still consisting of a shield, helmet and coat. ^[1]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

Medieval armour was much like that worn by Germanic warriors in 100 CE still consisting of a shield, helmet and coat (usually mail). ^[1] Miles of the 12th century wore a mail haubeck. ^[2]

[1]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

[2]: (Nicolle 1991, 6)

Breastplate late 13th century. ^[1] c1250-1330 CE: "development of weapons capable of piercing mail: the gradual introduction of pieces of plate (at first of whalebone, horn, and boiled leather, as well as of the iron and steel that ultimately prevailed) to cover an ever larger part of the mail). By 1330, every part of the body of a knight was nomally protected by one or several plates... By 1410, the various pieces of plate, including a breastplate and backplate instead of the earlier coat of plates, were all connected by straps and rivets in an articulated suit, or ’harness,’ of polished steel." ^[2]

[1]: (Nicolle 2000, 19)

[2]: (Boulton 1995 67-68) Jonathan D Boulton. Armor And Weapons. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. 1995. Routledge Revivals: Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. Abingdon.

"The English possessions in France led to Anglo-French warfare in the 13th and 14th centuries. The French pieced together a navy for use in the Atlantic and the Channel, often hiring Genose galleys to fight the English, especially in the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453 CE). France also built a naval base and shipyard, the Clos des Galées, at Rouen." ^[1] The ’cog’ was mostly used in the northern waters while galleys were used in the Mediterranean. ^[2]

[1]: (Runyan 1995, 1246-1247) Timothy J Runyan. 1995. Naval Power. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Garland Publishing, Inc. New York.

[2]: (Nicolle 2000, 39)

"Roman vessels utilized the rivers and coastal waters to transport merchandise and military personnel. The early Franks developed fleets for use in trade and war. Their vessels were propelled by oars and probably a single square sail." ^[1]

[1]: (Runyan 1995, 1246-1247) Timothy J Runyan. 1995. Naval Power. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Garland Publishing, Inc. New York.

"French fleets consisted mainly of merchant vessels recruited for royal service. Galleys were built or hired to fight, but by the 15th century these were replaced by large sailing ships over a hundred feet in length with carrying capacities of up to 1,000 tons." ^[1]

[1]: (Runyan 1995, 1246-1247) Timothy J Runyan. 1995. Naval Power. William W Kibler. Grover A Zinn. Lawrence Earp. John Bell Henneman Jr. Medieval France (1995): An Encyclopedia. Garland Publishing, Inc. New York.