The Hallstatt culture, named after an archaeological site in Austria and traditionally divided into four phases, was the main cultural complex in Western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It coincides with the North Alpine complex, extending over modern-day central and southern Germany, northern Italy, and Switzerland.
[1]
Population and political organization
In the Hallstatt B period (c. 1000-800 BCE),
[2]
the North Alpine cultural complex gradually became incorporated in trade networks dominated by Greek and Etruscan settlements. Hallstatt chiefs mediated the supply of Mediterranean prestige goods in their own spheres of exchange.
[1]
The average scale of integration of Hallstatt B polities extended to include land within a roughly 25-kilometre radius.
[3]
The maximal territorial extent of polities could be as much as 1000 square kilometres, as in the case of Wessex.
[1]
In this period, a three-tiered settlement hierarchy can be discerned archaeologically. Previous units fragmented: new autonomous communities polarized around fortified sites, the proportion of which increased. Tumuli became a more noticeable feature in the Hallstatt B landscape, and iron-working activity became much more prevalent.
[4]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH.
[2]: (CNRS-ENS 2017) CNRS-ENS. 2017. “Atlas de L’âge Du Fer.” Accessed July 7. http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/patlas. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HUKZMF9J.
[3]: (Brun 2007, 381) Brun, Patrice. 2007. “Une Période de Transition Majeure En Europe: De La Fin Du IVe Au Début Du IIe s. Av. J.-C.(La Tène B2 et C).” In La Gaule Dans Son Contexte Européen Aux IV e et III e Siècle Avant Notre Ère, edited by Christine Mennessier-Jouannet, Anne-Marie Adam, and Pierre-Yves Milcent, 377-84. Lattes: Edition de l’Association pour le Développement de l’Archéologie en Languedoc-Roussillon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ.
[4]: (Brun 1995, 15) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH.
| 31 U |
| Hallstatt B |
| Hallstatt culture | |
| Hallstatt | |
| Atlantic Complex | |
| North-Alpine Complex | |
| Western Hallstatt |
| vassalage to [---] |
| Hallstatt |
| Hallstatt C |
| continuity |
| Preceding: Hallstatt A-B1 (fr_hallstatt_a_b1) [continuity] |
| loose |
| [250 to 500] people | 900 BCE |
| [500 to 1,000] people | 800 BCE |
| [1,500 to 2,000] km2 |
| unknown |
| unknown |
| inferred absent |
| unknown |
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| present |
| present |
| unknown |
| absent |
| inferred present |
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| absent |
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| unknown |
| inferred present |
| inferred present |
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| inferred present |
| present |
| inferred present |
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| unknown |
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| inferred present |
| Year Range | Hallstatt B2-3 (fr_hallstatt_b2_3) was in: |
|---|---|
| (900 BCE 701 BCE) | Paris Basin |
Paris Basin straddles the "North-Alpine Complex" and the "Atlantic Complex" cultural region [1]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 14)
Paris Basin straddles the "North-Alpine Complex" and the "Atlantic Complex" cultural region [1]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 14)
Paris Basin straddles the "North-Alpine Complex" and the "Atlantic Complex" cultural region [1]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 14)
Early Hallstatt culture (900-600) based in Austria
Point against: the Paris Basin region was very much on the periphery of the Hallstatt zone and their local chiefs might not have been close enough to the important trade center (Austria) to have been vassals at any time.
Hallstatt B2/3-C(900-600 BC)
"The Mediterranean world-economy integrated the North-Alpine complex during Hallstatt B2-3/C. The Greek and Etruscan towns experienced an increasing demand for raw materials which led them to enlarge their supply areas until they embraced a large part of the continent. In this vast exchange system, certain well-positioned local chiefs played the role of privileged intermediaries. They were able to monopolize trade and exchange, and controlled the supply of Mediterranean prestigue goods, ultimately extending their influence into neighbouring territories. They reduced local rulers to vassal status. "
[1]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 22-23)
2500-800 BCE (European Bronze Age)
"centralization of power but only at a restricted scale and in three forms (Brun and Pion 1992): 1. A cluster of dispersed farms gravitate around a monument, a sort of tomb-sanctuary, which symbolizes the unity of the territorial community. This community is ruled by a chief who occupies one of the farms. 2. A cluster of farmsteads polarized by a village, near which is found the territorial sanctuary. ... 3. Identical in organization to #2, but the central role of the village is held by a fortification. It appears that this type of settlement owes its existence to the control it exerted over long-distance exchange, especially over exchange in metal."
[1]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 15)
Inhabitants.
Estimate assumes fortified center that was significantly smaller than those in 6th Century but much more numerous than a small settlement that applied to a very general 2500-800 BCE period.
There was a fortified center which was possibly "the seat of the local aristocracy."
[1]
Estimate of 5,000 for fortified center around 600 BCE
"Rather than a small hillfort of just a few hectares, as once believed, we can now see that in the first half of the 6th century BC Heuneburg was an enormous settlement of 100 ha and at least 5,000 inhabitants."
[2]
However, 2500-800 BCE (European Bronze Age) very low estimate of 100 - but this does cover a long time period
"Each autonomous political community consisted of around a hundred people on average, distributed in five to eight small settlements."
[3]
"Estimates for population in different areas of Europe vary considerably, but many authors work on a figure for the Late Bronze Age of three people per square kilometre on average (Ostoja-Zagórski 1982). In particular areas this may be more or less accurate, but even allowing for low densities in those areas where the carrying capacity of the land was relatively low (for instance in high mountains or dense scrubland) the implications for Europe as a whole are enormous."
[4]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 15)
[2]: (Fernández Götz and Krausse 2012, 31)
[3]: (Brun 1995, 14)
[4]: (Harding 2002, 328-329)
Inhabitants.
Estimate assumes fortified center that was significantly smaller than those in 6th Century but much more numerous than a small settlement that applied to a very general 2500-800 BCE period.
There was a fortified center which was possibly "the seat of the local aristocracy."
[1]
Estimate of 5,000 for fortified center around 600 BCE
"Rather than a small hillfort of just a few hectares, as once believed, we can now see that in the first half of the 6th century BC Heuneburg was an enormous settlement of 100 ha and at least 5,000 inhabitants."
[2]
However, 2500-800 BCE (European Bronze Age) very low estimate of 100 - but this does cover a long time period
"Each autonomous political community consisted of around a hundred people on average, distributed in five to eight small settlements."
[3]
"Estimates for population in different areas of Europe vary considerably, but many authors work on a figure for the Late Bronze Age of three people per square kilometre on average (Ostoja-Zagórski 1982). In particular areas this may be more or less accurate, but even allowing for low densities in those areas where the carrying capacity of the land was relatively low (for instance in high mountains or dense scrubland) the implications for Europe as a whole are enormous."
[4]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 15)
[2]: (Fernández Götz and Krausse 2012, 31)
[3]: (Brun 1995, 14)
[4]: (Harding 2002, 328-329)
in squared kilometers
Around 900-700 BCE, politically independent polities in the northern alpine region (which includes central France
[1]
) had a radius of about 25 km, which gives an area of about 1,964 sq kilometers.
[2]
[2]
Hallstatt B2/3-C(900-600 BC) -- these quotes reflects disagreement from same author. However, since it is an earlier publication will ignore and code the most recent research. In 1995 he does note that Wessex communities reached 1000 km2 in extent.
Territorial scale: "The economic foundations put in place in the ninth and eighth centuries BC were ... incapable of supporting a political scale of integration greater than tens of square kilometers."
[3]
2500-800 BCE (European Bronze Age)"Each politically autonomous territory measured from 7 to 15 km in diameter during the whole period, except during periods of temporary expansion."
[4]
"The Wessex communities seem to have succeeded in organizing polities 1000 km2 in extent" however "Evidence of similar polities is very rare in Europe during the same period."
[5]
[1]: (Brun 2007, 380)
[2]: (Brun 2007, 381)
[3]: (Brun 1995, 24)
[4]: (Brun 1995, 15)
[5]: (Brun 1995, 14)
levels.
1. Fortified center
Includes cemeteries of tumuli and is "the seat of the local aristocracy."
[1]
2. Village
3. Farmstead
Hallstatt B2/3-C(900-600 BC)
"the settlement pattern changes markedly. There is a great increase in the number of fortified sites. Small cemeteries of tumuli appear, often close to the fortifications. Typologies of ceramic and metal objects indicate the fragmentation of previous cultural units. Bronze hoards become more numerous - they are larger and their composition is more varied. Iron working becomes widespread. Rare earlier, iron objects increase rapidly in number during the ninth and eighth centuries BC. ... A small fortification, the seat of the local aristocracy, polarizes each politically autonomous territory."
[1]
2500-800 BCE (European Bronze Age)
"centralization of power but only at a restricted scale and in three forms (Brun and Pion 1992): 1. A cluster of dispersed farms gravitate around a monument, a sort of tomb-sanctuary, which symbolizes the unity of the territorial community. This community is ruled by a chief who occupies one of the farms. 2. A cluster of farmsteads polarized by a village, near which is found the territorial sanctuary. ... 3. Identical in organization to #2, but the central role of the village is held by a fortification. It appears that this type of settlement owes its existence to the control it exerted over long-distance exchange, especially over exchange in metal."
[1]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 15)
levels.
Same as earlier period as no new information to code higher.
levels.
Warrior society implies at least 2 levels of military hierarchy.
levels.
1. Regional aristocratic chief
2. Local chief
3. Headman
Hallstatt B2/3-C(900-600 BC)
A small fortification, the seat of the local aristocracy, polarizes each politically autonomous territory."
[1]
2500-800 BCE (European Bronze Age)
"centralization of power but only at a restricted scale and in three forms (Brun and Pion 1992): 1. A cluster of dispersed farms gravitate around a monument, a sort of tomb-sanctuary, which symbolizes the unity of the territorial community. This community is ruled by a chief who occupies one of the farms. 2. A cluster of farmsteads polarized by a village, near which is found the territorial sanctuary. ... 3. Identical in organization to #2, but the central role of the village is held by a fortification. It appears that this type of settlement owes its existence to the control it exerted over long-distance exchange, especially over exchange in metal."
[1]
[1]: (Brun 1995, 15)
"Silo" present during this time period. [1] Does this refer to food storage?
"Voire" or road is known in France in this period [1] but the two cases are far from the Paris basin region, apparently associated with the Mediterranean and Alps trade.
Is it reasonable to infer from the warrior society the presence of messengers?
Finds close to Paris Basin region. [1]
"Rempart en pierres seches" finds within France but not close to the Paris Basin region. [1]
"Mur terre" finds within France but not close to the Paris Basin region. [1]
Not mentioned in the literature.
Finds close to Paris Basin region. [1] Bows used on the continent. [2]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Koch ed. 2006, 1469) John T. Koch ed. Celtic Culture. A historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. A-Celti. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.
Finds within France during this time period but not close to Paris Basin region. [1] Javelins used on the continent. [2]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Koch ed. 2006, 1469) John T. Koch ed. Celtic Culture. A historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. A-Celti. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.
Not mentioned in the literature.
Inferred from the absence of crossbows in past and future polities in Paris Basin
Inferred from the absence of composite bows in past and future polities in Paris Basin
Inferred from previous and subsequenct (quasi)polities.
Finds close to Paris Basin region. [1] "long slashing swords representative of the aristocratic warrior" from 8th century onwards. [2] "Bronze age swords found by Lake Neuchâtel, Switzerland, estimated to be 3,000 year old." [3] Battle axe more common in the East Hallstatt area while in the Western Hallstatt region use of the dagger and sword was more common. [4]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Allen 2007, 22)
[3]: (https://twitter.com/europeshistory/status/630725341313548288)
[4]: (Koch ed. 2006, 1469) John T. Koch ed. Celtic Culture. A historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. A-Celti. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.
Spears were used from the Palaeolithic period for hunting, both handheld and as projectiles, and also served as weapons in early times, though it was not until the Middle Bronze Age when socketed metal spearheads began to be developed that spear superseded arrows as the preferred projectile. Their frequency in Bronze and Iron Age burials shows that they were used by all warriors and particularly by fighters who did not own a sword." [1]
[1]: (McIntosh 2006, 298)
Inferred from previous and subsequenct (quasi)polities.
Finds close to Paris Basin region. [1] Battle axe more common in the East Hallstatt area while in the Western Hallstatt region use of the dagger and sword was more common. [2]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Koch ed. 2006, 1469) John T. Koch ed. Celtic Culture. A historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. A-Celti. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.
Finds close to Paris Basin region. [1] Battle axe more common in the East Hallstatt area while in the Western Hallstatt region use of the dagger and sword was more common. [2]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Koch ed. 2006, 1469) John T. Koch ed. Celtic Culture. A historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. A-Celti. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.
"From the 8th century BC onwards, the graves of the Halstatt aristocracy are characterized by four-wheeled vehicles together with bits and other items of horse harness" [1] A cart wheel found at the archaeological site at Must Farm in the United Kingdom, and a horse’s spine found nearby, might suggest Britons of this time used domesticated horses to pull wheeled vehicles. This British village over water would have been unlikely to possess a chariot but it shows that the functional use of horses was widespread in northwest Europe at this time.
[1]: (Allen 2007, 22)
No finds within France until 620-560 BCE. ("Umbo" = shield boss?) [1] Organic/metal armour, shields, helmets. [2]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Koch ed. 2006, 1469) John T. Koch ed. Celtic Culture. A historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. A-Celti. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.
Inferred from previous and subsequenct (quasi)polities.
Finds within France during this time period but not close to Paris Basin region. [1] Organic/metal armour, shields, helmets. [2]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Koch ed. 2006, 1469) John T. Koch ed. Celtic Culture. A historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. A-Celti. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.
"Chaîne de suspension" present. Is this chainmail? [1] Organic chain mail suits appear in iron age. [2] Iron chain mail was introduced in the third century BCE, probably by the Celtic peoples. [3]
[1]: (http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/atlas#)
[2]: (Koch ed. 2006, 1469) John T. Koch ed. Celtic Culture. A historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. A-Celti. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.
[3]: (Gabriel 2002, 21) Richard A Gabriel. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Praeger. Westport.
Not mentioned in the literature.
Not mentioned in the literature.
Not mentioned in the literature.