Kushan Empire

Inhabitants.
Taxila: 150,000: 100 CE; 100,000: 200 CE ^[1]
Merv: 100,000: 100 CE ^[2]
Purushapura: 100,000: 100 CE; 100,000: 200 CE ^[1]
Kanishka I (128-150 CE) moved the capital to Purushapura, and Purushapura developed into the greatest city in the Kushan Empire." ^[3]
40,000 in Vargsar "which was always of major strategic importance as the main water-supply centre for the left-bank sector of the Samarkand Oasis and as a point commanding the approaches to Samarkand. Whoever held Vargsar could deprive Samarkand of its water supply. In the political history of Samarkand, there are numerous examples of attempts by foreign invaders to destroy the Vargsar dam and so compel Samarkand to surrender." ^[4]
Settlement of Bhita, or Vichi, covered about 26ha and had a population of between 10,000-20,000. ^[5]
The largest Central Asian cities were Bukhara, Samarkand and Ershi. ^[6]
City of Sirkap was "transferred to a new site at Sirsukh ... This new Kushan city, founded under the nameless king Soter Megas, covered an area of 1,370 x 1,000 m, but has not yet been excavated." ^[7]

[1]: (Modelski 2003, 45)

[2]: (Modelski 2003, 55)

[3]: (Samad 2011, 83) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[4]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 263) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

[5]: (Litvinsky 1994, 284-287) Litvinsky, B. A. Cities and urban life in the Kushan kingdom. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

[6]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 270) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

[7]: (Litvinsky 1994, 284) Litvinsky, B. A. Cities and urban life in the Kushan kingdom. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

Inhabitants.
Taxila: 150,000: 100 CE; 100,000: 200 CE ^[1]
Merv: 100,000: 100 CE ^[2]
Purushapura: 100,000: 100 CE; 100,000: 200 CE ^[1]
Kanishka I (128-150 CE) moved the capital to Purushapura, and Purushapura developed into the greatest city in the Kushan Empire." ^[3]
40,000 in Vargsar "which was always of major strategic importance as the main water-supply centre for the left-bank sector of the Samarkand Oasis and as a point commanding the approaches to Samarkand. Whoever held Vargsar could deprive Samarkand of its water supply. In the political history of Samarkand, there are numerous examples of attempts by foreign invaders to destroy the Vargsar dam and so compel Samarkand to surrender." ^[4]
Settlement of Bhita, or Vichi, covered about 26ha and had a population of between 10,000-20,000. ^[5]
The largest Central Asian cities were Bukhara, Samarkand and Ershi. ^[6]
City of Sirkap was "transferred to a new site at Sirsukh ... This new Kushan city, founded under the nameless king Soter Megas, covered an area of 1,370 x 1,000 m, but has not yet been excavated." ^[7]

[1]: (Modelski 2003, 45)

[2]: (Modelski 2003, 55)

[3]: (Samad 2011, 83) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[4]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 263) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

[5]: (Litvinsky 1994, 284-287) Litvinsky, B. A. Cities and urban life in the Kushan kingdom. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

[6]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 270) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

[7]: (Litvinsky 1994, 284) Litvinsky, B. A. Cities and urban life in the Kushan kingdom. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

squared kilometers.
[2,000,000-2,500,000]: 100 CE
60 CE Greater Bactria, Anxi (Indo-Parthia), Kaofu (Kabul Region), Puda (Paktiya), Jipin (Kapisa and Gandhara), and the Taxila region. However, at this time core area was the Taxila region. ^[1]
Vima Taktu (81-100 CE) and Vima Kadphises (101-127 CE) "the entire region of Greater Gandhara including Uddhyana (Swat, Dir & Bajaur) and Upper and Lower Kabul River valleys became a solid part of the Kushan Empire." ^[1] "North of the Hindu Kush, till the Guissar Mountains, Kushans exercised some influence; but these regions were not strictly under the political control of the Kushan emperors." ^[1] "Probably Mathura was also established as a vassal State of the Kushan Empire during this period." ^[1]
[3,500,000-4,000,000]: 150 CE
Kanishka I (128-150 CE) "the Kushan Empire included besides the territories of Greater Gandhara, Greater Bactria, part of Parthia and the Tarim Basin in Chinese Xingjiang." ^[1]
[2,000,000-2,500,000]: 200 CE
Huvishka (155-190 CE) "it seems that the territories north of the Amu Darya and the Tarim Basin became independent but Bactria (south of the Amu Darya) could have remained under Kushan control." ^[2]
[1,000,000-1,500,000]: 250 CE
230 CE "during the rule of the minor rulers, the entire Central Asian region became independent." ^[2]
Note on the Rabatak Inscription "peak territory"
"The Rabatak Inscription ... mentions a number of cities which Kanishka says formed a part of his vast empire. The names of these cities are given as Ozene, Zageda, Kasambo, Palabotro and Ziri tambo in the Rabatak inscription, which the translator of the Rabatak inscription, Professor Nicholas Sims-Williams, has identified with the cities of Ujjain, Saketa, Kausambi, Pataliputra and Champa." "This identification, if it is correct, obviously gives a rather exaggerated account of the extent of the Kushan Empire during Kanishka’s reign. This statement in the Rabatak Inscription is not supported by reliable archaeological or historical information from other sources. At best one could agree that Kanishka invaded these territories and forced the rulers to pay tribute, but such an arrangement could not have lasted for very long. These territories could therefore not be considered an integral part of the Kushan Empire." ^[3]
Sogdiana
"The territory of Sogdiana (the Zerafshan valley) did not belong to the Kushan Empire". ^[4]

[1]: (Samad 2011, 86) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[2]: (Samad 2011, 87) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[3]: (Samad 2011, 86-87) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[4]: (Harmatta 1994, 429) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

squared kilometers.
[2,000,000-2,500,000]: 100 CE
60 CE Greater Bactria, Anxi (Indo-Parthia), Kaofu (Kabul Region), Puda (Paktiya), Jipin (Kapisa and Gandhara), and the Taxila region. However, at this time core area was the Taxila region. ^[1]
Vima Taktu (81-100 CE) and Vima Kadphises (101-127 CE) "the entire region of Greater Gandhara including Uddhyana (Swat, Dir & Bajaur) and Upper and Lower Kabul River valleys became a solid part of the Kushan Empire." ^[1] "North of the Hindu Kush, till the Guissar Mountains, Kushans exercised some influence; but these regions were not strictly under the political control of the Kushan emperors." ^[1] "Probably Mathura was also established as a vassal State of the Kushan Empire during this period." ^[1]
[3,500,000-4,000,000]: 150 CE
Kanishka I (128-150 CE) "the Kushan Empire included besides the territories of Greater Gandhara, Greater Bactria, part of Parthia and the Tarim Basin in Chinese Xingjiang." ^[1]
[2,000,000-2,500,000]: 200 CE
Huvishka (155-190 CE) "it seems that the territories north of the Amu Darya and the Tarim Basin became independent but Bactria (south of the Amu Darya) could have remained under Kushan control." ^[2]
[1,000,000-1,500,000]: 250 CE
230 CE "during the rule of the minor rulers, the entire Central Asian region became independent." ^[2]
Note on the Rabatak Inscription "peak territory"
"The Rabatak Inscription ... mentions a number of cities which Kanishka says formed a part of his vast empire. The names of these cities are given as Ozene, Zageda, Kasambo, Palabotro and Ziri tambo in the Rabatak inscription, which the translator of the Rabatak inscription, Professor Nicholas Sims-Williams, has identified with the cities of Ujjain, Saketa, Kausambi, Pataliputra and Champa." "This identification, if it is correct, obviously gives a rather exaggerated account of the extent of the Kushan Empire during Kanishka’s reign. This statement in the Rabatak Inscription is not supported by reliable archaeological or historical information from other sources. At best one could agree that Kanishka invaded these territories and forced the rulers to pay tribute, but such an arrangement could not have lasted for very long. These territories could therefore not be considered an integral part of the Kushan Empire." ^[3]
Sogdiana
"The territory of Sogdiana (the Zerafshan valley) did not belong to the Kushan Empire". ^[4]

[1]: (Samad 2011, 86) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[2]: (Samad 2011, 87) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[3]: (Samad 2011, 86-87) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[4]: (Harmatta 1994, 429) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

No reliable estimates exist, although the population seems to have increased and a the number of cities in the northern steppe grew and prospered. Studies and excavations of cities also show a marked growth in the density and overall population size of the populations involved. ^[1]
McEvedy and Jones ^[2]
100 CE
Pakistan and North West India. 36m for Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. In 200 BC approximately 40% in the Ganges Basin. If roughly same proportions in 100 CE, and Kushans mostly outside the Ganges Basin, leaves 22 million for rest of India. Indus Basin likely to have been next most populous part of Indian sub-continent at this time. If, say, 25% total that would be 9m.
Afghanistan 2m
Transoxania 1.75m for Russian Turkestan
200 CE
Pakistan and North West India. 39m for Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. In 200 BC approximately 40% in the Ganges Basin. If roughly same proportions in 100 CE, and Kushans mostly outside the Ganges Basin, leaves 23 million for rest of India. Indus Basin likely to have been next most populous part of Indian sub-continent at this time. If, say, 25% total that would be 10m.
Afghanistan 2.25m
Transoxania 1.75m for Russian Turkestan

[1]: http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank article/vol_II%20silk%20road_cities%20and%20urban%20life%20in%20the%20kushan%20kingdom.pdf

[2]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 184+163+155)

No reliable estimates exist, although the population seems to have increased and a the number of cities in the northern steppe grew and prospered. Studies and excavations of cities also show a marked growth in the density and overall population size of the populations involved. ^[1]
McEvedy and Jones ^[2]
100 CE
Pakistan and North West India. 36m for Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. In 200 BC approximately 40% in the Ganges Basin. If roughly same proportions in 100 CE, and Kushans mostly outside the Ganges Basin, leaves 22 million for rest of India. Indus Basin likely to have been next most populous part of Indian sub-continent at this time. If, say, 25% total that would be 9m.
Afghanistan 2m
Transoxania 1.75m for Russian Turkestan
200 CE
Pakistan and North West India. 39m for Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. In 200 BC approximately 40% in the Ganges Basin. If roughly same proportions in 100 CE, and Kushans mostly outside the Ganges Basin, leaves 23 million for rest of India. Indus Basin likely to have been next most populous part of Indian sub-continent at this time. If, say, 25% total that would be 10m.
Afghanistan 2.25m
Transoxania 1.75m for Russian Turkestan

[1]: http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank article/vol_II%20silk%20road_cities%20and%20urban%20life%20in%20the%20kushan%20kingdom.pdf

[2]: (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 184+163+155)

1. City - capital
Kanishka I (128-150 CE) moved the capital to Purushapura. ^[1] He had regional capitals at Taxila, Begram and Mathura. ^[2]
2. City - administrative center"Major administrative centers are believed to have been Peshawar in northwest Pakistan and Mathura in the Ganges Basin." ^[3]
3. Towns2nd and 3rd CE in Bactria: "During this period the country consisted of towns, including the important cities of Balkh and Termez, and rural settlements (roughly in the ratio of one to seven)." ^[4]
Vichi (Bhita) estimated population of population of between 10,000 and 20,000 persons. "In Sisupalgarh (ancient Kalinga˙nagara), where the ruins of the ancient city cover an areaof about 1.36 km2". "Begram, north of Kabul, at the confluence of the Panjshir and Ghorband rivers. The city was rectangular in shape, extending 800mfrom north to south and 450m from east to west with a citadel in the northeast." ^[5] "The cities became centres for the production of commodities for sale, hence their key importance in the city-village-nomadic-steppe system." ^[6] 4. Rural settlements5. Nomadic camps.
Commune
"There is some direct, and a great deal of indirect, evidence to show that the commune occupied an important place in the socio-economic life of Central Asia and in the ancient East as a whole. This seems to have continued until the Early Middle Ages, for which evidence is available. Thus, the commune in Sogdiana was known as naf; it consisted of the aristocracy (azat, azatkar), merchants (xvakar), and free peasants (who were members of the commune) and craftsmen (karikar). ... According to the written sources, the azat owned the land and the villages and were the chief retainers of the local and provincial rulers." ^[7]
" In all probability, there was more land under communal ownership than any other type. There is some evidence to show that communes owned whole irrigation systems and the regions irrigated by them, as well as settlements and grazing lands. Localities settled by rural communes were called varzana, vardana or gava, meaning village or rural district, and it was precisely at this time that the fortified settlement of Vardanze, in the northern part of the Bukhara oasis, was established." ^[8]

[1]: (Samad 2011, 83) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[2]: (Murugan 2013, 27) Murugan, Suresh. 2013. Introduction To Social Work. Social Work Department. PSG College of Arts and Science.

[3]: (Sinopoli 2006, 337) Sinopoli, Carla M. Imperial Landscapes of South Asia. in Stark, Miriam T. ed. 2006. Archaeology of Asia. Blackwell Publishing. Oxford.

[4]: (Litvinsky, Shah and Samghabadi 1994, 475) Litvinsky, B. A. Shah, Hussain, M. Samghabadi, R. Shabani. The Rise of Sasanian Iran. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

[5]: Dani, Ahmad Hasan et al. History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol. 2: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Paris: Unesco, 1992,p.287, 288.

[6]: Dani, Ahmad Hasan et al. History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol. 2: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Paris: Unesco, 1992,p.292.

[7]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 280) Mukhamedjanov, A R in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

[8]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 281) Mukhamedjanov, A R in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

levels.
Sivaism, Vishnuism, Jainism, Buddhism - and their different schools "penetrated Central Asia" from India where there was Zoroastrianism, Greek divinities, pre-Zoroastrian cults, and ancient Iranian religions of the horseriding nomads. ^[1] Kushan rulers had "a liberal and tolerant attitude to all religions." ^[2] "The Kushan rulers patronized religious cults to assert their legitimacy in power of the conquered sedentary societies". ^[3] "religious cults appeared on the coins - the dynastic symbol - to indicate religious devotion of a particular king. A variety of gods and cults were documented on Kushan coins - the Sumerian goddess Nana on her lion, Persian gods Oado and Atash, Indian cults of Buddha and Shiva. Zoroastrian fire worship left many remains." ^[3]
_Sivaism_
1. King
"it seems that originally the divine patron of the Kushan dynasty was the ancient Iranian moon god. In view of the close connection between Siva and the moon, dynastic religious ideas may have also suggested to Vima [Kadphises] the choice of Siva as his divine patron." ^[4]
2.
Syncretic religious cult which "apparently combined Greek, Iranian and non-Sivaite Indian elements." ^[5]
_Dynastic protector religion_
1. King
2. Bakanapati (temple-keeper) ^[6]
"a network of imperial temples dedicated to the divine protectors of the dynasty, where statues of the royal ancestors were also erected". ^[7] "The main source of their legitimacy was no doubt the divinity of claim to their kingdom. Rulers of Kushans were called ’Son of God’ or the ’Son of Heaven’ ... the worship of heaven, prevailed in many tribes of the steppe. Kushan probably, like other tribes, claim the legitimacy of the chief deity of the sky." ^[3]
Inscription in the Rabatak temple lists gods ’from whom the king as obtained kingship.’ Five are Zoroastrian but two are not. ^[8] Muzhdwan "is portrayed as a Yuezhi rider with a typical Scythian hooded cap, and it seems reasonable to suppose that Kanishka took this personal protector from his own stock of family gods." ^[8] Terracotta figurines of horsemen with pointy caps are found at Kushan-Bactrian sites and usually assigned to category of ’rider gods’ or ’heroized ancestors.’ ^[9] Umma was a goddess ("not to be confused with the Indian goddess Uma who is shown on some later coins") whose Iranian name means ’highest’ or ’supreme’. The Rabatak inscription said she was "welcoming in her presence all the other gods named here." Scythians had a goddess called Tabiti (Herodotus) who might fit her description as a "bestower of power". ^[9] A terracotta of Umma found in a former Yuezhi territory showed her with "strikingly Yuezhi facial features." ^[9]
"The family temple (Devakula Sanskrit) of the Kushan royal family was where protective deity or deities should be worshiped ... The deification of the ruler which was so prevalent in the Roman and Hellenistic world as well as among the Iranians was thus introduced into India and left a mark on the future development of Hindu kingship." ^[3]
_Vishnuism_
1.
2.
_Jainism_
1.
2.
_Zoroastrianism_
1.
2.3.4.
"the pantheon shown on Kushan coins belongs almost entrely to the Zoroastrian religion - which was the religion of the local populatn of Bactria at least from the Achaemenian period - though the iconographic types were mostly borrowed from Greece and India." ^[8]
_Buddhism_
1.
2.3.4.
Kanishka I (128-150 CE): "Several traditions indicate that Kanishka sponsored the fourth Buddhist Council meeting at Jalandhar, which gave birth to Mahayana Buddhism." ^[10]
Mahayana Buddhism introduced new deities - bodhisattvas - "to help others cross the ocean of suffering". Bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvaras would help people in trouble and responded to donations. Other bodhisattvas included Maitreya and Amitabha who had paradises for Buddhists not yet able to reach nirvana. "The Mahayana vision of future lives was no doubt much more attractive to the pragmatically inclined. Rebirth into a beautiful heaven was much more desirable than reaching nirvana. For merchants, making donations was a much more satisfying and practical approach than self-denial. The gifts given in the name of the Buddha or bodhisattvas became the property of Buddhist monasteries." ^[11]
"They were influenced by Buddhism to some extent but none of them actually converted to Buddhism. They patronized the Buddhist establishment and gave full respect to the Buddhist community and Buddhist religion, but continued to worship a large number of Iranian, Mesopotamian, and even some Indian deities." ^[12]
_Hinduism_
1.
2.
"When the Kushans entered South Asia, they encountered both Brahmanism and Buddhism, and cults of both religions appeared on Kushan coins." ^[3]
_Christianity_
1.
2.
"Later Armenian sources refer to the success of Iranian Christianity, spreading to the Kushan Empire and even into India, where it still survives (in Kerala)." ^[13]

[1]: (Harmatta et al. 1994, 321) Harmatta, J. Puri, B. N. Lelekov, L. Humayun, S. Sircar, D. C. Religions in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

[2]: (Samad 2011, 81) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[3]: Katariya, Adesh. 2012. The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History. Adesh Katariya.

[4]: (Harmatta et al. 1994, 312) Harmatta, J. Puri, B. N. Lelekov, L. Humayun, S. Sircar, D. C. Religions in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

[5]: (Harmatta et al. 1994, 322) Harmatta, J. Puri, B. N. Lelekov, L. Humayun, S. Sircar, D. C. Religions in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

[6]: B. N. Mukherjee, ’The Rise and Fall of the Kushana Empire’ (Calcutta, 1988), pp. 335-6/338

[7]: (Grenet 2012, 2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.

[8]: (Grenet 2012, 17) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.

[9]: (Grenet 2012, 18) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.

[10]: (Samad 2011, 83) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[11]: (Liu 2010, 53) Liu, Xinru. 2010. The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[12]: (Samad 2011, 88-89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[13]: (Ball 2016, 140) Ball, Warwick. 2016. Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge.

^[1]
1. Kushana king
2. Chiang (military general), Dandanayaka, Mahadandanayaka
3. Baladhika (commander of an army)
4.
5.
6. Common soldiers
likely to have been at least one level between the commander of the army and the ordinary soldier, especially as the organization was complex enough to warrant a general above a commander of an army. changing code to range of 4-6
NOTE: Dandanayaka and Mahadandanayaka may have referred to a judge, magistrate, head police-officer or an army general. They may have have been used to perform judicial, civil and military duties at different times or as the occasions demanded.

[1]: B. N. Mukherjee, ’The Rise and Fall of the Kushana Empire’ (Calcutta, 1988), p. 338

levels
Widespread literacy in India among Buddhist monks and Brahmans who were recruited as administrators using their Kharosthi script. ^[1]
For example, "putting in place an effective satrapy system was not within the capabilities of the Kushans. ... At Kashgar, Kanishka installed a king of his choice ... but after Kanishka’s death, this kingdom also slipped out of Kushan control." ^[2]
1. Kushana king.
Despite lower levels of administration, the Kushan king possessed unfettered powers. ^[3]
_Central government_
Within Greater Gandhara (northwest Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan) administration through the Buddhist establishment. Outside Greater Gandhara (Bactria, Sogdiana, Tarim Basin, Jumna Basin etc.) there was no such establishment to run the administration of the territories. ^[4]
2. Mantriparishad (Council of ministers) or Mantriparishatpala (prime minister) where is this from? is it inferred from later or earlier Indian systems? what is the evidence for this in the Kushan era?"The king seems to have possessed unfettered powers, as we find no reference in the Kushan records to any advisory body or to councillors corresponding to amatyas and sachivas of the Mauryan period." ^[5]
3.4.5
_Regions_
2. SatrapsInscriptions mention satraps and other officials have been found. "Satraps are known for Kapisa (Begram), Manikyala (near Rawalpindi), Und (west of the Indus), Mathura, Varanasi, etc. There may have been satraps for other parts of the empire, but the evidence on this point is wanting." ^[5]
3. dandanayakas"ksatrapas were definitely at a higher administrative level than the dandanayakas" but the relationship between them is not known. ^[5]
4. gramika or padrapala (village head) / Commune"The inscriptions mention two terms - ’gramika’ and ’padrapala’ - both signifying ’village headman’, who collected the king’s dues and took cognizance of crimes in his area. There is no information about the local government that we find later in the Gupta period." ^[5]
"the commune occupied an important place in the socio-economic life of Cenral Asia and in the ancient East as a whole. This seems to have continued until the Early Middle Ages, for which evidence is available. Thus, the commune in Sogdiana was known as naf; it consisted of the aristocracy (azat, azatkar), merchants (xvakar), and free peasants (who were members of the commune) and craftsmen (karikar). Of these three categories in the naf the highest status was enjoyed by the azat, that is, persons of ’high and noble birth’, the azatkar or free persons associated with the azat and the ’children of the azat of aristocratic, noble origin.’ According to the written sources, the azat owned the land and the villages and were the chief retainers of the local and provincial rulers." ^[6] "There is some evidence to show that communes owned whole irrigation systems and the regions irrigated by them, as well as settlements and grazing lands." ^[7] "the state and large land-holders, who tried to attach members of the commune to the land - a process that ultimately led to the emergence of feudalism in Central Asia." ^[7]
3. Khwarazm"All but unknown today, the civilization of Khwarazm between AD 100 and 600 was a highly sophisticated society. Its capital and main religious center, Topraq Qala, in what is now western Uzbekistan, featured a walled, 1100-by-1600-foot rectilinear compound. Elegantly built, it consisted of grand three-storied palaces and temples." ^[8]
4.
Yuezhi confederation organized into five major tribes which were led by yabgu (tribal chiefs). However, it might also be "the five Kingdom were in fact not the Yuezhi people, but were the people in the state of Daxia. ... where each town carried out its affairs in its own way and was ruled by a so-called ’minor chief’. The Yuezhi did not wipe out these ’minor chiefs,’ but ’made them all into their subjects’ after they had conquered the state of Daxia." ^[9] Daxia = Bactria. By turn of the millennium the Yuezhi "had dominated Greco-Bactria for almost two centuries." ^[9] "State in Kangju/Sogdia "acknowledged nominal sovereignty to the Yuezhi." ^[9]

[1]: (Harmatta 1994, 425) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

[2]: (Samad 2011, 92) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[3]: B. N. Mukherjee, ’The Rise and Fall of the Kushan Empire’ (Calcutta, 1988), pp. 328-9;338;346-8

[4]: (Samad 2011, 91) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[5]: (Puri 1994, 254) Puri, B. N. The Kushans. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

[6]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 280) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

[7]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 281) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

[8]: (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.

[9]: Katariya, Adesh. 2012. The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History. Adesh Katariya.

There is some evidence that professional guilds provided soldiers who protected guild property in peace-time, were placed at the disposal of the state during war. ^[1]

[1]: http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_II%20silk%20road_cities%20and%20urban%20life%20in%20the%20kushan%20kingdom.pdf p. 304

Sivaism, Vishnuism, Jainism, Buddhism - and their different schools "penetrated Central Asia" from India where there was Zoroastrianism, Greek divinities, pre-Zoroastrian cults, and ancient Iranian religions of the horseriding nomads. ^[1]
"Buddhist monasteries became large economic enterprises, engaging in all kinds of business, including trading, investing, and the making of alcohol." ^[2]
The Kara-tepe inscriptions show that an important role was played by Buddhist monks and officials as well as the Zoroastrian priesthood. ^[3]
Buddhist monasteries had the patronage of Kushan rulers and rich traders, also Zoroastrian followers. ^[4]

[1]: (Harmatta et al. 1994, 321) Harmatta, J. Puri, B. N. Lelekov, L. Humayun, S. Sircar, D. C. Religions in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

[2]: (Liu 2010, 54) Liu, Xinru. 2010. The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

[3]: http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bankarticle/vol_II%20silk%20road_cities%20and%20urban%20life%20in%20the%20kushan%20kingdom.pdf p. 299

[4]: , “Kanis.ka’s Bactrian Pantheon in the Rabatak Inscription: The Numismatic Evidence,” in Proceedings of the 5th Conference of the Societas Iranologica Europaea held in Ravenna, 6-11 October 2003, vol. I: Ancient and Middle Iranian Studies, ed. Antonio Panaino and Andrea Piras (Milano: Mimesis, 2006), 351-57, see 353-54, plates 37-38

These may have also acted as civil or judicial officials. Probably covered by profession of Mahadandanyaka or Dandanayaka. ^[1]

[1]: B. N. Mukherjee, ’The Rise and Fall of the Kushana Empire’ (Calcutta, 1988), p. 338

cities were laid out with organized areas for administration. ^[1] Empire’s founder "Kujala issued the first Kushan coins from Taxila, which were patterned on the Roman coinage." ^[2]

[1]: Roudik, Peter. The History of the Central Asian Republics. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. p. 22

[2]: (Samad 2011, 81) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

Professions were hereditary ^[1]

[1]: http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_II%20silk%20road_cities%20and%20urban%20life%20in%20the%20kushan%20kingdom.pdf pp. 301-302

the Kushan city had a special official, the dovarika, who wouldshut the city gates at night show the way to strangers. ^[1]

[1]: http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_II%20silk%20road_cities%20and%20urban%20life%20in%20the%20kushan%20kingdom.pdf

Professions were hereditary ^[1]

[1]: http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_II%20silk%20road_cities%20and%20urban%20life%20in%20the%20kushan%20kingdom.pdf pp. 301-302

There were such things as legal documents and land transfer deeds written in Kharoshthi. ^[1]

[1]: (Samad 2011, 89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

There were such things as legal documents and land transfer deeds written in Kharoshthi. ^[1]
"The dandanayaka was presumably the wielder of the rod (dandayaka), acting both as commissioner of police to prevent crime and as a judge or criminal magistrate administering justice."" ^[2]

[1]: (Samad 2011, 89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[2]: (Puri 1994, 254) Puri, B. N. The Kushans. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

There is textual evidence of cases being decided, as well as references to the first King being steadfast in the law. ^[1]
"The Mat inscription of Huvishka refers to him as ’steadfast in the true law’, a title also borne by the first Kushan king, Kujula Kadphises on his coins." ^[2]

[1]: Harmatta, János, B. N. Puri, and G. F. Etemadi. History of Civilizations in Central Asia. Volume II: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations pp. 252-255, 411-412; Subramaniam, V. "The administrative legacy of ancient India." International Journal of Public Administration 21, no. 1 (1998): 87-108.

[2]: (Puri 1994, 252) Puri, B. N. The Kushans. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

There were such things as legal documents and land transfer deeds written in Kharoshthi. ^[1]

[1]: (Samad 2011, 89) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

Irrigation canals were constructed on large scale. "As a result of the extensive development of irrigation networks, practically all the main provinces of Central Asia were brought under cultivation during this period and the establishment of the major crop-growing oases was completed." ^[1] "In the K’ang-chü-Kushan period, when irrigation systems reached their highest level of development, the area under irrigation along the lower reaches of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya totalled 35,000-38,000 km2 (13,000 km2 on the lower Amu Darya and 22,000-25,000 km2 on the lower Syr Darya). Thus, in antiquity, the land area under irrigation along the lower reaches of the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya was four times greater than it is today. ... not more than 10-15 per cent of the land area, the irrigation zone, was directly used for crop-raising, in spite of the substantial supply of water." ^[2] "The process of carrying water to the fields was improved and various water distribution devices were introduced. Irrigation was effected in accordance with a specific flow pattern: main river, head, main canal, distribution canal, irrigation canal and fields." ^[3] "The major achievements of Kushan irrigation engineering included the boring of tunnel-like water-intake channels at the heads of main canals that emerged from the sheer rock sides of a mountain river, and the construction of aqueducts across ravines or gaps in mountain ridges." ^[4]

[1]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 257) Mukhamedjanov, A R in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

[2]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 261) Mukhamedjanov, A R in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

[3]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 260-261) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

[4]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 262-263) Mukhamedjanov, A R in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

unknown. Wells feature in literary descriptions of cities. ^[1]

[1]: B.A. Litvinsky, ’Cities and Urban Life under The Kushans’ in J. Harmatta ed., History of Civilisations of Central Asia pp.303-304.

The Purushapura-Bactra Highway. This connected Gandhara "with important Buddhist cultural and commercial centers in Central Asia in the Kushan Period." ^[1] Conningham reinforces this code of present by attesting to the roads within Taxila ^[2]

[1]: (Samad 2011, 96) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[2]: Conningham, Robin, pers. comm. Interview with Harvey Whitehouse and Christina Collins, Jan 2017

Accounts from Rome of Transactions in Kushan ports. ^[1] "According to the report of Aristobulos (quoted by Strabo XI.7.3), the Oxus river was navigable and many Indian goods were transported on it as far as the Hyrcanian Sea, and from there to Albania and the Pontic region." ^[2] "Ships arriving from the Mediterranean anchored at Barygaza, Sopara, and Kalyana." ^[3]

[1]: Harl, Kenneth W. Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 BC to AD 700. JHU Press, 1996. p. 302

[2]: (Harmatta et al. 1994, 310) Harmatta, J. Puri, B. N. Lelekov, L. Humayun, S. Sircar, D. C. Religions in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

[3]: (Liu 2010, 55) Liu, Xinru. 2010. The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press. Oxford.

Construction of large irrigation canals (e.g. Dargom, Bulungur, Narpai and Shahrud) on the Zaravshan (the Salar canal in the Tashkent oasis) have been dated to the Kushana empire. ^[1] Were these canals used for transport? "The surviving portions of a canal of the K’ang-chu period (fourth century b.c. to first century a.d.) measure as much as 20 m from bank to bank; those dating from the Kushan period (second and third centuries a.d.) measure only 10-11 m, but have steep sides and are much deeper." ^[2]

[1]: B. N. Mukherjee, ’The Rise and Fall of the Kushana Empire’ (Calcutta, 1988), pp.369-70

[2]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 261) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

"the extraction of minerals also increased considerably during the Kushan period. Metal ores, semi-precious and precious stones and other minerals were regularly mined. Mining developed rapidly, especially in the eastern regions of Central Asia. It is known from the written sources that iron, gold, silver and nephrite were mined in the mountains of Ferghana and Sogdiana, silver in Ilak, copper in Karamazar, rubies in Badakhshan and lapis lazuli in Bactria." ^[1]

[1]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 270) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

the state chancery used both "Bactrian written in Greek script and Gandhari written in Kharoshthi". ^[1] There also was a "formulae transmitted from the Achaemenians." ^[2] "Bactrian writing was widely used throughout the Kushan Empire both for official purposes and for everyday life." ^[3] Conningham reinforces the code of present by discussing the assortment of leather documents with Bactrian writing. ^[4]

[1]: (Grenet 2012, 1-2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.

[2]: (Grenet 2012, 2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.

[3]: (Harmatta 1994, 413) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

[4]: Conningham, Robin, pers. comm. Interview with Harvey Whitehouse and Christina Collins, Jan 2017

The administration apparatus used the dual languages of Bactrian written with Greek script and Gandahari written in the Kharoshthi script. ^[1] Coningham validates this. ^[2] the state chancery used both "Bactrian written in Greek script and Gandhari written in Kharoshthi". ^[3] There also was a "formulae transmitted from the Achaemenians." ^[4] In India two scripts were already in use: Brahmi and Kharosthi. ^[5]

[1]: History of Civilisations of Central Asia pp. 424-427; http://cces.snu.ac.kr/article/jces3_1grenet.pdf

[2]: Conningham, Robin, pers. comm. Interview with Harvey Whitehouse and Christina Collins, Jan 2017

[3]: (Grenet 2012, 1-2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.

[4]: (Grenet 2012, 2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.

[5]: (Harmatta 1994, 425) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

Bactrian Greek; Kharosthi script; Brahmi and Kharosthi and several literary languages of Sanskrit and different Prakrits. ^[1]

[1]: History of Civilisations of Central Asia pp. 424-427

the state chancery used both "Bactrian written in Greek script and Gandhari written in Kharoshthi". ^[1] There also was a "formulae transmitted from the Achaemenians." ^[2] "Bactrian writing was widely used throughout the Kushan Empire both for official purposes and for everyday life." ^[3] Conningham reinforces the code of present by discussing the assortment of leather documents with Bactrian writing. ^[4]

[1]: (Grenet 2012, 1-2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.

[2]: (Grenet 2012, 2) Grenet, Franz. 2012. The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire. (1st-3rd Century AD). Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. Volume 3. Center for Central Eurasian Studies. Seoul National University.

[3]: (Harmatta 1994, 413) Harmatta, J. Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

[4]: Conningham, Robin, pers. comm. Interview with Harvey Whitehouse and Christina Collins, Jan 2017

Health, medicine, astronomy, astrology and mathematics. The astronomical text Yavanajataka ^[1] "Tolstov, in his study of the remains of the ancient irrigation works in Chorasmia, noted that it was precisely during the period of antiquity that a school of irrigation engineers and high priests of science emerged at Chorasmia; it remained in existence until the time of Qutayba’s campaign against Khwarizm (ancient Chorasmia). The school included experts in mathematics, water engineering, cartography, astronomy and calendrical observations, which were of great importance for an extensive irrigation economy." ^[2] Part of Chorasmia region is within boundaries of Kushan Empire.

[1]: (Bivar 2009) Bivar, A. D. H. 2009. KUSHAN DYNASTY i. Dynastic History. IranicaOnline. Site accessed: www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kushan-dynasty-i-history

[2]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 264) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

Buddhists, Hindi, and Zoroastrian religious texts were present. ^[1]

[1]: Liu, Xinru. "A note on Buddhism and urban culture in Kushan India." Indian Economic & Social History Review 27, no. 3 (1990): 351-358.

"Kanishka II was, without doubt, a great protector of Buddhism and founded monasteries and built stupas... [he convened] the Buddhist synod in Kashmir, a decisive turning-point in the life of the Buddhist schools. According to tradition, this synod of the Sarvastivada school compiled the Jnanaprasthanam and entrusted Asvaghosa, the famous poet, with providing for the correct language form of the commentary written by Katyayana. Essentially, his charge was to rewrite the Buddhist works in Sanskrit." ^[1] Buddhists, Hindi, and Zoroastrian religious texts were present. ^[2] "Most of the literature produced was in the form of religious text and commentraries. These texts were written in Gandhari language and Kharoshthi." ^[3] Ghosaka: "Buddhist theologian and author from Balkh who played an important role in the deliberations at the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir in the first century AD." ^[4]

[1]: (Harmatta et al. 1994, 316) Harmatta, J. Puri, B. N. Lelekov, L. Humayun, S. Sircar, D. C. Religions in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

[2]: Liu, Xinru. "A note on Buddhism and urban culture in Kushan India." Indian Economic & Social History Review 27, no. 3 (1990): 351-358.

[3]: (Samad 2011, 97) Samad, Rafi U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Algora Publishing. New York

[4]: (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.

Law books (smritis), work of dramaturgy, writings on grammar and metres ^[1]

[1]: Avari, Burjor. India: the Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Sub-continent from C. 7000 BC to AD 1200. Routledge, 2007. pp. 128-137

General reference for Kinds of Written Documents ^[1]

[1]: B. N. Mukherjee, ’The Rise and Fall of the Kushana Empire’ (Calcutta, 1988), pp.409-10

Poetical works, dramas and a play called Mrichchhakatika by Sudraka ^[1] "Kanishka II ... [convened] the Buddhist synod in Kashmir, a decisive turning-point in the life of the Buddhist schools. According to tradition, this synod of the Sarvastivada school compiled the Jnanaprasthanam and entrusted Asvaghosa, the famous poet, with providing for the correct language form of the commentary written by Katyayana. Essentially, his charge was to rewrite the Buddhist works in Sanskrit." ^[2]

[1]: Avari, Burjor. India: the ancient past: a history of the Indian sub-continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200. 2007, pp. 128-137

[2]: (Harmatta et al. 1994, 316) Harmatta, J. Puri, B. N. Lelekov, L. Humayun, S. Sircar, D. C. Religions in the Kushan Empire. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

The economy of the Kushan Empire was based on trade. ^[1]

[1]: (Samad 2011, 81) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

Empire’s founder "Kujala issued the first Kushan coins from Taxila, which were patterned on the Roman coinage." ^[1] The gold coinage introduced by Vima Kadphises used a gold dinar that copied the weight standard of the Roman gold aureus. Most of the early coinage was made of bronze, and each coin bore a legend in Bactrian using Kushan script based on the Greek alphabet ^[2] The coins of Vima Kadphises "are of such high quality that some historians believe that they must have been made by Roman mint masters in the service of the Kushana kings." ^[3]

[1]: (Samad 2011, 81) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

[2]: J. Harmatta, ’History of Civilisations of Central Asia pp. 249, 276-281

[3]: Katariya, Adesh. 2012. The Glorious History of Kushana Empire: Kushana Gurjar History. Adesh Katariya.

Roman coins ^[1]

[1]: J. Harmatta, ’History of Civilisations of Central Asia pp. 276-281

The economy of the Kushan Empire was based on trade. ^[1]

[1]: (Samad 2011, 81) Samad, R. U. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Angora Publishing.

Trade system very well developed.

Clay blocks and adobe bricks used for fortification walls. ^[1] Many towns enclosed by thick walls with rectangular towers. ^[2] "When the Kushan conquered this region they established a third administrative capital at a site called Sirsukh close to Taxila. This city was strongly defended with a stone wall that included projecting circular bastions for archers." ^[3]

[1]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 279) Mukhamedjanov, A R in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

[2]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 270) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

[3]: (McLaughlin 2016, 83) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

"Palaces and castles were built on high platforms and surrounded by strong fortifications." ^[1]

[1]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 279) Mukhamedjanov, A R in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

absent before the gunpowder era

inferred from description of fortifications suggesting moat features

"Palaces and castles were built on high platforms and surrounded by strong fortifications." ^[1]

[1]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 279) Mukhamedjanov, A R in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

"The strong fortification walls reinforced by projecting towers, and the intricate labyrinths with multi-tiered loopholes, were some examples of major developments in the art of fortification at this time." ^[1]

[1]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 279) Mukhamedjanov, A R in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

At this time in Central Asia if high-quality steel was used it would have been imported. The following sources suggest later dates for fine steel. However we code present because the Kushans occupied northern India (a location repeatedly associated with fine steel) which as early as 1st CE was exporting iron and steel as far as East Africa. ^[1] Reference for high quality of the steel (no beginning date provided): “In the context of this work, it is important to note that crucible steel of fine quality was made at Herat, in Bukhara and in northern India.” ^[2] Reference for high quality of the steel (this one dates from 900 CE): "Further east from Merv along the Silk Road is a region praised for its iron and steel production by Greek, Islamic, and Chinese writers. The Sogdian state of Ustrushana, a mountainous region east of Samarkand, and the Ferghana basin ... material related to the medieval iron and steel industry has been uncovered here. Most relevant ... is a workshop excavated at a city-site of the +9th-13th centuries in Feghana, at Eski Achsy, Uzbekistan. ..” Crucible fragments ”The excavators consider that the process used here was direct production of steel from ore, just as He Tangkun argues for the Luoyang crucibles. It is quite possible, however, that they were (also) used in co-fusion steel production as suggested by the Merv excavators." ^[3] Fine steel swords may have been produced at an earlier time than 900 CE with the technology coming from northern India or from this region via Persia: In Tibet c700 CE "steel swords were certainly available through trade with Sogdia and Fergana ... and many steel blades are known from Central Asia from the late first millennium until the arrival of Genghis Khan in the early thirteenth century." ^[4] "The Sogdian cities of Samarqand and Bukhara probably also manufactured iron and steel weapons that were exported to Tibet. We know that by the early eighth century, the Sogdians, having probably borrowed the technology from the Sasanians, were manufacturing mail armor and offered suits of the material as gifts to the Tang court in 718. ... The Sasasnians may themselves have developed knowledge of steelmaking from contacts with northern India." ^[5] "The principal centres for the manufacture of steel weapons in Central Asia were Khwarazm, Ferghana and northern India.” ^[2] Burnished steel represented in image of warrior. ^[6]

[1]: (Hatke 2013) Hatke, George. 2013. Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa. New York University Press.

[2]: (Hill 2000, 270) D R Hill. Physics and mechanics. Civil and hydraulic engineering. Industrial processes and manufacturing, and craft activities. C E Bosworth. M S Asimov. eds. 2000. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century. UNESCO. Paris.

[3]: (Wagner and Needham 2008, 265) Donald B Wagner. Joseph Needham. 2008. Science and Civilisation in China. Volume V. Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

[4]: (Clarke 2006, 22) John Clarke. A History of Ironworking in Tibet: Centers of Production, Styles, and Techniques. Donald J LaRocca. ed. 2006. Warriors of the Himalayas: Rediscovering the Arms and Armor of Tibet. Yale University Press. New Haven.

[5]: (Clarke 2006, 21) John Clarke. A History of Ironworking in Tibet: Centers of Production, Styles, and Techniques. Donald J LaRocca. ed. 2006. Warriors of the Himalayas: Rediscovering the Arms and Armor of Tibet. Yale University Press. New Haven.

[6]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD, p. 15, 71.

Iron breastplates and shaped pieces. ^[1]

[1]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD p. 59

Saka warriors who destroyed the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in 145 BCE (and may have used similar military technology to the Kushan nomads) used bronze arrowheads. ^[1]

[1]: (McLaughlin 2016, 76) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

Bronze helmets ^[1] Saka warriors who destroyed the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in 145 BCE (and may have used similar military technology to the Kushan nomads) used bronze arrowheads. ^[2]

[1]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD. Montvert, 1997.

[2]: (McLaughlin 2016, 76) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

First use of the counter-weight trebuchet 1165 CE at Byzantine siege of Zevgminon. ^[1]

[1]: (Turnball 2002) Turnball, S. 2002. Siege Weapons of the Far East (1): AD 612-1300. Osprey Publishing.

Slings. ^[1]

[1]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 269) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

Previously coded "present". Engravings from the Oxus temple of Takht-i Sangin show mounted archers with self-bow. ^[1] is this correct - do the engraves show mounted archers with both composite bows and self-bows?

[1]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD, p.11, 59.

"Lively contacts and easy communications promoted the rise and spread of a fairly uniform nomadic culture in the steppe zone. The same types of horse-harness (bridle, bit, cheek-piece, saddle, trappings), arms (bow, bow-case, arrow and quiver, sword, battle-axe, mail) and garments (trousers, caftan, waist-girdle, boots, pointed cap) were used in the steppe zone from Central Europe to Korea." ^[1] "There are a number of artistic depictions, from different eras, that show steppe warriors on horseback and armed with a javelin". ^[2] ET: Whilst searching for data for the Hephthalites I found this late 19th century quote from an encyclopaedia. I cannot confirm it refers to the Hephthalites but it mentions horsemen. Did the horse backed warriors also carry a javelin? Bone-tipped javelins are less likely to leave finds for archaeologists. "Like the Mongols they were a race of horsemen. They fought with bone-tipped javelins, with sabers, and with slings or lassoes. They ate herbs and half- raw meat, which they first used as saddles ; and they clothed themselves with the skins of wild animals”.

[1]: (Harmatta 1994, 476-477) Harmatta, J. Conclusion. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

[2]: Karasulas, Antony. Mounted archers of the steppe 600 BC-AD 1300. Vol. 120. Osprey Publishing, 2004, p.28.

Inferred as came later in history. ^[1] (Present: mace, heavy sword, dagger, trident, battle-axe, spear, scythe ^[2] )

[1]: DeVries, Kelly. "matchlock." In The Oxford Companion to Military History. : Oxford University Press, 2001.

[2]: B. N. Mukherjee, ’The Rise and Fall of the Kushana Empire’ (Calcutta, 1988), p. 340

Inferred as came later in history. ^[1]

[1]: DeVries, Kelly. "cannon" In The Oxford Companion to Military History. : Oxford University Press, 2001.

’Kanishka’s Central Asian identity is confirmed by his appearance in a statue that was discovered near Mathura. Although the statue depicts the king wearing a long coat and boots, with a huge sword in one hand and a cross-bow like contraption in the other.’ ^[1] "Even with strong crossbows that shoot far, and long halberds that hit at a distance, the Hsiung-nu would not be able to ward them off. If the armors are sturdy and the weapons sharp, if the repetition crossbows shot far, and the platoons advance together, the Hsiung-nu will not be able to withstand. If specially trained troops are quick to release (their bows) and the arrows in a single stream hit the target together, then the leather outfit and wooden shields of the Hsiung-nu will not be able to protect them. If they dismount and fight on foot, when swords and halberds clash as [the soldiers] come into close quarters, the Hsiung-nu, who lack infantry training, will not be able to cope." ^[2]

[1]: Sanu Kainiraka. 2016. From Indus to Independence. A Trek Through Indian History. Volume II. The Classical Age. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. New Delhi.

[2]: Nicola Di Cosmo. 2002. Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, p. 203

Engravings from the Oxus temple of Takht-i Sangin show mounted archers with compound bow. ^[1] Composite bow. ^[2] Saka warriors who destroyed the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in 145 BCE (and may have used similar military technology to the Kushan nomads) used bows, lances and long swords. ^[3] Yuezhi were mounted archers supported by heavy lancers. ^[4]

[1]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD p. 11, 59.

[2]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 269) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

[3]: (McLaughlin 2016, 76) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

[4]: (McLaughlin 2016, 77) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

Weapon of the Americas and extremely unlikely to have been present here

"Among their weapons we find the compound bow, bronze and bone arrowheads (their arrows also contained beads that gave them a whistling effect), broadswords, short swords, lances, and maces." ^[1]

[1]: (Golden 1992, 60)

Long swords. ^[1] Most common weapon was a large, double-edged iron sword of 1.2m. ^[2] Saka warriors who destroyed the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in 145 BCE (and may have used similar military technology to the Kushan nomads) used bows, lances and long swords. ^[3] Khalchyan sculpture depicts swords. ^[4]

[1]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD p. 57

[2]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 269) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

[3]: (McLaughlin 2016, 76) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

[4]: (McLaughlin 2016, 77) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

Weapons included the cataphractus lance. There also seem to have been shorter infantry spears, tridents and other more esoteric weapons. ^[1] Spears. ^[2] Saka warriors who destroyed the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in 145 BCE (and may have used similar military technology to the Kushan nomads) used bows, lances and long swords. ^[3] Yuezhi were mounted archers supported by heavy lancers. ^[4]

[1]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD p. 57

[2]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 269) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

[3]: (McLaughlin 2016, 76) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

[4]: (McLaughlin 2016, 77) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

"Even with strong crossbows that shoot far, and long halberds that hit at a distance, the Hsiung-nu would not be able to ward them off. If the armors are sturdy and the weapons sharp, if the repetition crossbows shot far, and the platoons advance together, the Hsiung-nu will not be able to withstand. If specially trained troops are quick to release (their bows) and the arrows in a single stream hit the target together, then the leather outfit and wooden shields of the Hsiung-nu will not be able to protect them. If they dismount and fight on foot, when swords and halberds clash as [the soldiers] come into close quarters, the Hsiung-nu, who lack infantry training, will not be able to cope." ^[1]

[1]: Nicola Di Cosmo. 2002. Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, p. 203

Daggers. ^[1]

[1]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 269) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

Battle-axes. ^[1]

[1]: (Mukhamedjanov 1994, 269) Mukhamedjanov, A R. Economy and Social System in Central Asia in the Kushan Age. in Harmatta J, Puri B N and Etemadi G F eds. 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. UNESCO.

The 32nd Discourse delivered by Dio Cocceianus Chrysostomus (sometime after 112 CE) indicated that the Bactrians (who in this context should be identified with the Kushans) were highly skilled in the art of horsemanship and that horse riders were often among the vanguards of the Kushana army. Chinese translations of Buddhist texts also refer to campaigns led by Kanishka I riding a horse. ^[1] The armies of the Kushans were largely light horse archers, supported by the heavier armoured Cataphract Calvary. ^[2] "Lively contacts and easy communications promoted the rise and spread of a fairly uniform nomadic culture in the steppe zone. The same types of horse-harness (bridle, bit, cheek-piece, saddle, trappings), arms (bow, bow-case, arrow and quiver, sword, battle-axe, mail) and garments (trousers, caftan, waist-girdle, boots, pointed cap) were used in the steppe zone from Central Europe to Korea." ^[3]

[1]: B. N. Mukherjee, ’The Rise and Fall of the Kushana Empire’ (Calcutta, 1988), pp. 330-31

[2]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD, Montvert, 1997, pp. 57-57

[3]: (Harmatta 1994, 476-477) Harmatta, J. Conclusion. in Harmatta, Janos. Puri, B. N. Etemadi, G. F. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing.

The inclusion of elephant riders among the vanguards are alluded to on some coins and in the Tsa pao-tsang ching. ^[1] Native Indian auxiliaries using elephants are also reported to have been in use. The elephants seem to have been used as an advance screen for the main force as well as shock troops. ^[2] "The Weilue describes how the population of eastern India ’ride elephants and camels into battle, but currently they provide military service and taxes to the Yuezhi [Kushans]’." ^[3]

[1]: B. N. Mukherjee, ’The Rise and Fall of the Kushana Empire’ (Calcutta, 1988), p. 330

[2]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD, Montvert, 1997, pp. 57-57

[3]: (McLaughlin 2016, 80) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

"Donkeys were among the key pack animals used to carry silk from the Pacific Ocean to the Mediterranean" ^[1]

[1]: R K Koslowsky. 2004. A World Perspective through 21st Century Eyes. Trafford. Victoria.

requires expert opinion

Chinese account about Steppe Nomads along the silk road, close to Sogdiana and camels are indigenous to the area: Sima’s records state "Most of their domestic animals are horses, cows, sheep, and they also have rare animals such as camels, donkeys, mules, hinnies and other equines known as t’ao-t’u and tien-hsi. They move about according to the availability of water and pasture, have no walled towns or fixed residences, nor any agricultural activities, but each of them has a portion of land.54 " ^[1] "The Weilue describes how the population of eastern India ’ride elephants and camels into battle, but currently they provide military service and taxes to the Yuezhi [Kushans]’." ^[2]

[1]: Nicola Di Cosmo. 2002. Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, p. 272

[2]: (McLaughlin 2016, 80) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

"Even with strong crossbows that shoot far, and long halberds that hit at a distance, the Hsiung-nu would not be able to ward them off. If the armors are sturdy and the weapons sharp, if the repetition crossbows shot far, and the platoons advance together, the Hsiung-nu will not be able to withstand. If specially trained troops are quick to release (their bows) and the arrows in a single stream hit the target together, then the leather outfit and wooden shields of the Hsiung-nu will not be able to protect them. If they dismount and fight on foot, when swords and halberds clash as [the soldiers] come into close quarters, the Hsiung-nu, who lack infantry training, will not be able to cope." ^[1]

[1]: Nicola Di Cosmo. 2002. Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, p. 203

According to Robinson (1967) as far as the Persian tradition, "cavalry, it would appear, did not always carry shields, and it is not until Sassanian times that warriors, particularly the heavily armed horsemen, are shown carrying small convex circular shields." ^[1] However, there are depictions of round shields on coins. ^[2]

[1]: (Robinson 1967) Robinson, H. Russell. 1967. Oriental Armour. Walker and Co. New York.

[2]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD, p. 15, 71.

Kings are shown on coins wearing scale shaped plates, and some evidence from archaeological digs have found iron plates. ^[1] "Sauromatian bronze helmets and scale or plate armor not of local production appear in the Volga River region and southern Ural Steppes in the fifth-fourth century b.c., showing an increase in the exchange economy among neighboring communities." ^[2] "Scale armor of leather protected his body. He carried a twig-woven quiver for a bow and sometimes more than 200 arrows, covered with leather and decorated with an umbor, an arms belt with a buckle for crossing the belts; a richly decorated quiver hook; a long spear with a massive head and spike; a short iron akinakes sword; and iron axe. This complete image recalls a picture from a novel featuring medieval western European knights; these Sarmatian ’proto-types,’ however, are 2,000 years older.” ^[3] "Their horses also wear coats of scale or chain armour." ^[4]

[1]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD p. 59

[2]: Nicola Di Cosmo. 2002. Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, p. 42

[3]: (Yablonsky 2010, 142) Leonid Teodorovich Yablonsky. Jan 2010. New Excavations of the Early Nomadic Burial Ground at Filippovka (Southern Ural Region, Russia). American Journal of Archaeology. Vol. 114. No. 1. pp. 129-143.

[4]: (McLaughlin 2016, 77) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

Armour seems to have included the muscle cuirass. Kings are shown on coins wearing scale shaped plates, and some evidence from archaeological digs have found iron plates. ^[1] "Sauromatian bronze helmets and scale or plate armor not of local production appear in the Volga River region and southern Ural Steppes in the fifth-fourth century b.c., showing an increase in the exchange economy among neighboring communities." ^[2] Saka warriors who destroyed the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in 145 BCE (and may have used similar military technology to the Kushan nomads) left illustrations in Sogdia (Orlat) depicting chainmail, domed helmets, high-collared metal-plated corselets. ^[3]

[1]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD p. 57

[2]: Nicola Di Cosmo. 2002. Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, p. 42

[3]: (McLaughlin 2016, 76) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

Arm and leg protectors depicted in visual sources. ^[1] "cap-like helmets and metal suits that cover their legs and sleeves with concentric armoured bands." ^[2]

[1]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD p. 59

[2]: (McLaughlin 2016, 77) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

Boots, belts and other aspects of Armour. ^[1] Light tunics, riding trousers. ^[2]

[1]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD. Montvert, 1997.

[2]: (McLaughlin 2016, 77) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

Contemporary images show helmets being worn. ^[1] Saka warriors who destroyed the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in 145 BCE (and may have used similar military technology to the Kushan nomads) left illustrations in Sogdia (Orlat) depicting chainmail, domed helmets, high-collared metal-plated corselets. ^[2] "cap-like helmets and metal suits that cover their legs and sleeves with concentric armoured bands." ^[3]

[1]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD, p.13, 59.

[2]: (McLaughlin 2016, 76) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

[3]: (McLaughlin 2016, 77) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

Coin depicts Vasudeva wearing chainmail. ^[1] Saka warriors who destroyed the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in 145 BCE (and may have used similar military technology to the Kushan nomads) left illustrations in Sogdia (Orlat) depicting chainmail, domed helmets, high-collared metal-plated corselets. ^[2] "Their horses also wear coats of scale or chain armour." ^[3]

[1]: (Higham 2009, 82) Higham, C. 2009. Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase Publishing.

[2]: (McLaughlin 2016, 76) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

[3]: (McLaughlin 2016, 77) Raoul McLaughlin. 2016. The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China. Pen and Sword History. Barnsley.

Iron breastplates and shaped pieces. ^[1] Armour seems to have included the archaic Greek boetian helmets. ^[2]

[1]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD p. 59

[2]: The armies of Bactria 70 BC-450 AD p. 57

Landlocked polity.

Landlocked polity.