The Judea (originally Yehuda) polity of 141 - 63 BCE was formed when Simon Thassi, brother of the executed Jonathan Apphus who had waged war against the Seleucids, was elected as High King and Prince in a popular assembly in 141 BCE. Simon achieved a measure of quasi-independence from the Seleucids—though he remained a vassal and the population retained strong elements of Hellenism.
According to archaeologists, it seems that Galilee was only sparsely settled before this period, and that the conquering of territories and increase in Jewish communities coming into the area contributed to the rise in permanent settlements and population during this time. However, agreements over the population differs widely, with estimates on the largest settlement, Jerusalem, ranging from 10,000 to 100,000 people.
[1]
[2]
[3]
Judea was a sophisticated, well-organised and equipped society, with markets, established trade routes, water transportation infrastructure, aqueducts and cisterns, temples and palaces, sporting arenas, libraries, and many other modern features.
[4]
[5]
[6]
[1]: Leibner (2009:319).
[2]: Broshi (1978).
[3]: Geva (2013).
[4]: Chanson (2002:56).
[5]: Netzer (2001:13-39).
[6]: See the Specialized Buildings section for more information from our expert
| vassalage to [---] | |
| nominal allegiance to [---] | |
| none |
| Jewish diaspora |
| Late Roman Republic |
| 100,000 km2 |
| continuity |
| UNCLEAR: [continuity] |
| confederated state |
| [10,000 to 100,000] people |
| [5,000 to 10,000] km2 |
| present |
| present |
| present |
| inferred present |
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| Year Range | Yehuda (il_judea) was in: |
|---|---|
| (103 BCE 62 BCE) | Galilee |
In the Hebrew, יהודה. Named after the most powerful of the pre-Exile tribes which were described as remaining loyal to the Davidic dynasty.
This approximates the high point of the rule of John Hyrcanus, who engaged in significant conquests. After his death in 104 BCE, his sons and grandsons engaged in frequent intrigues and civil wars involving much loss of life. While Alexander Jannaeus briefly conquered additional territory in the Transjordan, he soon lost it and much of Hyrcanus’ earlier conquests following the disastrous Battle of Gadara in 93 BCE.
While Judea was technically a vassalage of the Seleucids in the earlier period, Jonathan and Simon assiduously played both sides of the Seleucid succession struggles against the middle, at times winning considerable practical autonomy. Circa 116 or 115 BCE, John Hyrcanus I broke away from the crippled Seleucid Empire and followed an independent policy, which lasted until his feuding descendants invited Pompey in.
While Judea was technically a vassalage of the Seleucids in the earlier period, Jonathan and Simon assiduously played both sides of the Seleucid succession struggles against the middle, at times winning considerable practical autonomy. Circa 116 or 115 BCE, John Hyrcanus I broke away from the crippled Seleucid Empire and followed an independent policy, which lasted until his feuding descendants invited Pompey in.
While Judea was technically a vassalage of the Seleucids in the earlier period, Jonathan and Simon assiduously played both sides of the Seleucid succession struggles against the middle, at times winning considerable practical autonomy. Circa 116 or 115 BCE, John Hyrcanus I broke away from the crippled Seleucid Empire and followed an independent policy, which lasted until his feuding descendants invited Pompey in.
Two brothers of the Hasmonean dynasty, King Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, contended for the throne in continual civil wars and intrigues from 67-63 BCE. Finally each appealed to the Romans in Syria under Pompey the Great to intervene on his side. [1] Pompey, seeing the opportunity, intervened on the side of the ineffectual Hyrcanus, besieged Jerusalem and took it in 63 BCE, and absorbed Judea into the Roman Empire as a protectorate.
[1]: E.g. Josephus, cited in Eshel (2008:140).
km squared. This crude approximation reflects the substantial Jewish populations in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
This coding is arguable. The code book doesn’t have a good descriptor for "successful political rebellion"; the new elites who ejected the Seleucids, the Hasmonean dynasty, were native to Judea, so "elite migration" doesn’t really fit either. "Cultural assimilation" might fit, perhaps. At any rate, in 153 BCE the Hasmonean leader Jonathan "Apphus," having led a years-long guerrilla war against the Seleucids after the death of his brother (Judah the Maccabbi), was confirmed as High Priest and ruler of the Jews as a vassal of the Seleucid claimant Alexander Balas. In the swirl of conflict over the Seleucid throne, Jonathan fell into a trap and was executed in 142 BCE; he was succeeded by his brother Simon, who achieved a measure of quasi-independence from the Seleucids—though he remained a vassal and the population retained strong elements of Hellenism. Simon was confirmed as High King and Prince in a popular assembly in 141 BCE.
This coding is arguable. The code book doesn’t have a good descriptor for "successful political rebellion"; the new elites who ejected the Seleucids, the Hasmonean dynasty, were native to Judea, so "elite migration" doesn’t really fit either. "Cultural assimilation" might fit, perhaps. At any rate, in 153 BCE the Hasmonean leader Jonathan "Apphus," having led a years-long guerrilla war against the Seleucids after the death of his brother (Judah the Maccabbi), was confirmed as High Priest and ruler of the Jews as a vassal of the Seleucid claimant Alexander Balas. In the swirl of conflict over the Seleucid throne, Jonathan fell into a trap and was executed in 142 BCE; he was succeeded by his brother Simon, who achieved a measure of quasi-independence from the Seleucids—though he remained a vassal and the population retained strong elements of Hellenism. Simon was confirmed as High King and Prince in a popular assembly in 141 BCE.
Hebrew was mostly displaced by Aramaic in the aftermath of the Babylonian exile c. 582 BCE; however, both languages continued to be spoken in daily life, with Hebrew especially retaining religious importance even as Aramaic gained relatively greater importance as a vernacular. It had once been believed by scholars that Aramaic had replaced Hebrew altogether (outside of religious contexts), but newer archaeological evidence has shown that view to be mistaken. [1] Greek, meanwhile, was introduced by the Macedonian Empire and reinforced during the rule of the Ptolemies and the Seleucids, and was additionally important as a trade language.
[1]: Cf. Buth/Notley (2014).
Hebrew was mostly displaced by Aramaic in the aftermath of the Babylonian exile c. 582 BCE; however, both languages continued to be spoken in daily life, with Hebrew especially retaining religious importance even as Aramaic gained relatively greater importance as a vernacular. It had once been believed by scholars that Aramaic had replaced Hebrew altogether (outside of religious contexts), but newer archaeological evidence has shown that view to be mistaken. [1] Greek, meanwhile, was introduced by the Macedonian Empire and reinforced during the rule of the Ptolemies and the Seleucids, and was additionally important as a trade language.
[1]: Cf. Buth/Notley (2014).
Hebrew was mostly displaced by Aramaic in the aftermath of the Babylonian exile c. 582 BCE; however, both languages continued to be spoken in daily life, with Hebrew especially retaining religious importance even as Aramaic gained relatively greater importance as a vernacular. It had once been believed by scholars that Aramaic had replaced Hebrew altogether (outside of religious contexts), but newer archaeological evidence has shown that view to be mistaken. [1] Greek, meanwhile, was introduced by the Macedonian Empire and reinforced during the rule of the Ptolemies and the Seleucids, and was additionally important as a trade language.
[1]: Cf. Buth/Notley (2014).
Inhabitants. The population size of Jerusalem is the subject of wildly different views. Tacitus believed that during the Jewish revolt of 66-73 CE (some years after the Hasmonean period ended), Jerusalem had some 600,000 inhabitants; archaeological estimates of the population within the defensive walls range between 80,000
[1]
and 20,000
[2]
(which is almost certainly far too low; Geva assumes that much of the enclosed territory of Jerusalem was actually uninhabited, being royal or Temple precincts, but it is hard to imagine that such extensive buildings and fortifications could have been produced by so few people). Both estimates are based on population-density coefficients; however, it is not clear that the coefficients in use are reasonable. "Some of the densities recently put forward for area coefficients have been based on unwalled, premodern villages…. How similar is such a village to a walled Bronze or Iron Age town or city? Although this is not a case of comparing apples and oranges (more like oranges and grapefruit), it seems probable that the economic constraints of building a defensive system put a permanent physical limit on the settlement area," leading to higher population densities.
[3]
(Another possibility that I have seen noted, but not in the scholarly literature, is that much of the population associated with a given ANE city might not have lived inside its walls at all, but would be semi-nomadic pastoralists circulating within its economic orbit. Such pastoralists would leave little trace archaeologically, which would pose problems for conventional population estimates.)
In any event, Jerusalem is generally believed to have grown significantly under the rule of Herod Antipas, immediately after the Hasmonean era ended.
[1]: Broshi (1978).
[2]: Geva (2013).
[3]: Zorn (1994:33)
in squared kilometers. Very rough estimate from the varying descriptions of Judean territory. Records are not precise enough to provide finer-grained estimates by king.
levels.
Speaking exclusively of Southeastern Galilee, Leibner comments: "[Almost] all of the large settlements (20 dunams and greater) are located at the margins of the valleys or abutting extensive patches of alluvial soil…. This is also true among the smaller sites; most are located in proximity to extensive agricultural plains.… [and] near a permanent water source. The pattern that emerges is of a series of medium and large-sized settlements near extensive areas suitable for agriculture… most fortified or at the very least with natural fortifications. In addition to these, there are a few small settlements [of less than 10 dunams area], mostly in fortified locations, with no small farms at all in the agricultural areas."
[1]
1. Capital (Jerusalem)2. Large and medium-sized settlements3. Small settlements
[1]: Leibner (2009: 318-319).
The priestly caste that served in the Temple.
Judea was a fully commercial society. Markets are frequently referenced in Talmudic accounts.
Several aqueducts and cisterns have been found that date to this period or earlier, in particular the so-called "Lower Aqueduct" of Jerusalem, which is generally believed to have been built by the Hasmoneans themselves circa 150 BCE.
Most roads were worn dirt paths, with some stone reinforcement; but it is reasonable to suppose that given the importance of caravan trade, the regime would have spent effort maintaining the vital coastal route Via Maris at least.
The port of Acre was captured by the original Hasmonean revolt; additionally, Alexander Jannaeus took control of the ports of Dor and Caesaria.
A large bridge spanned the Tyropoeon Valley, connecting the palace and the Temple Mount to the Upper City of Jerusalem, which is believed to have been built by the early Hasmoneans. This was destroyed during the siege of Pompey in 65 BCE by the city’s defenders.
Precious metals do not seem to have been mined locally; over 95% of Hasmonean-minted bronze coins were made of metals believed to have originated in Cyprus. [1] However, as was true in previous eras, several stone quarries were in use. Among them was a Samara-stone quarry near Jericho, used for decorative architecture. [2]
[1]: Epstein et al. (2010).
[2]: Peleg-Barkat (2013).
Both the "square script" (also called ashurit, "Assyrian") and the older Phoenician-style scripts of Hebrew.
Both the "square script" (also called ashurit, "Assyrian") and the older Phoenician-style scripts of Hebrew.
Both the "square script" (also called ashurit, "Assyrian") and the older Phoenician-style scripts of Hebrew.
Both the "square script" (also called ashurit, "Assyrian") and the older Phoenician-style scripts of Hebrew.
At a minimum, the scholarly community of Rabbinic Judaism made constant use of memorization and mnemonics, since it was forbidden for the Oral Law to be written down. (The precise date at which the Rabbinic academies began is a matter of scholarly dispute, but Rabbinic tradition records several generations of leaders prior to Shimon ben Shetach, who was a contemporary of King Alexander Jannaeus.)
Even according to the least sympathetic scholarly views, the Torah (Pentateuch) had existed for several hundred years by this point. [tk]
The Wisdom of Ben Sirach devotes much of its text to practical advice on commerce, social relationships, and ethical living. It was studied and popularly referenced for centuries, as the Talmud notes with some disapproval (see Sanhedrin 100b).
Presuming that as in previous ages, administrative records were written.
At a bare minimum, the Wisdom of Sirach contains several poems.
Aside from the Rabbinic calendar, whose months were determined by observation of each New Moon, several fixed calendars were in use. The so-called Qumran Calendar of 364 days is attested to in several of the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the similar Enoch Calendar is described in the Book of Enoch. [1]
[1]: Cf. Pratt (2000).
Greek and later Roman coinage would have been typical, and the Temple tax (see below) was paid exclusively with Tyrian coins. [1] Two Roman silver denarii have been found with likely allusions to the Hasmoneans, including one marked "BACCIUS JUDAEAS"; possibly they were used in trade between Rome and Judea. (Repeatedly referenced in nonacademic discussions, but I have not found the original source.)
[1]: Regev (2013:74).
The regime would have needed them, and many surrounding polities had used couriers for centuries.
“…a new type of stone dressing developed in the mid second century BC. Stones were cut with façades showing bosses and polished margins on all sides, and not only on one vertical and one horizontal side as during the Iron Age and at the beginning of this period. The blocks were normally laid and set in walls according to the ‘headers and stretchers’ tradition, as in the walls of Hasmonaean fortifications. Generally, on flat terrain city walls followed the city’s trace. On hilly sites, as in Hasmonaean Jerusalem, there is a curious incongruity between the town plan and the city walls: while the city’s shape maintained a rigid orthogonal system, the city walls seemed to take topographical features into consideration." [1]
[1]: Rocca (2008).
Smaller fortifications were often mortared.
"It is believed that Indian steel was exported in the early centuries A.D. and was known even in the time of Alexander. By the sixth century there is more definite evidence of the manufacture of Damascene swords and the steel used for this purpose came from India." [1] Steel is coding as present in previous polities.
[1]: (Abraham 1988, 171) Meera Abraham. 1988. Two medieval merchant guilds of south India. Manohar Publications.
"It is believed that Indian steel was exported in the early centuries A.D. and was known even in the time of Alexander. By the sixth century there is more definite evidence of the manufacture of Damascene swords and the steel used for this purpose came from India." [1] Steel is coding as present in previous polities.
[1]: (Abraham 1988, 171) Meera Abraham. 1988. Two medieval merchant guilds of south India. Manohar Publications.
I Maccabees reports (5:30) that the Maccabees captured siege engines (mekhanai in the Greek), which were later likely used in the siege of Jerusalem (6:20, 6:52). The text also describes the Jews making their own engines. [1] The tension catapult and ballista were well-known by that point, having been used for centuries by various Greek cities and especially by the Macedonian Empire.
[1]: Bar-Kokhva (1989:81).
Not known outside of China until the 6th Century CE.
Used in the region for at least the previous millennium, and still effective in contemporary militaries such as that of Carthage. “The [Hasmonean] infantry probably included lightly armed units of archers and slingers, semi-heavy infantry units such as the Hellenistic theurophoroi, and heavily armed infantry, organized along similar lines to the late Hellenistic phalanx.” [1] A sling bullet dated to the Hasmonean era was found at Beth Zur, the site of a battle between the Seleucid general Lysias and Judah the Maccabbi. [2]
[1]: Rocca (2008).
[2]: Pearlman (1973).
Though not commonly used by militaries because of the prevalence of the composite bow.
A staple in Hellenic and Roman armies, and for centuries previous.
A staple of the region’s militaries for the previous millennium.
A Roman-style gladius has been found at Jericho and dated to the middle of the second century BCE. [1] Atkinson infers that this weapon was Hasmonean, demonstrating that the Hasmoneans had adopted Hellenistic weapons. [2] (The Romans adopted the gladius in the late 3rd century BCE from the Iberians, and the Seleucid and Ptolemaic armies are known to have adopted some Roman practices.) [1]
[1]: Stiebel (2004).
[2]: Atkinson (2016:45).
Common in the region for over a millennium, but during the Hellenistic era axes were typically used only by light or irregular infantry.
The lorica hamata was probably in use in the Hasmonean armies; it was almost certainly used by their successor Herod. "By the 2nd century BC the lorica hamata was widespread in the neighboring Seleucid and Ptolemaic armies, which were inspired by the armor worn by the Roman Republican armies." [1]
[1]: Rocca (2009:21).
The lorica hamata was probably in use in the Hasmonean armies; it was almost certainly used by their successor Herod. "By the 2nd century BC the lorica hamata was widespread in the neighboring Seleucid and Ptolemaic armies, which were inspired by the armor worn by the Roman Republican armies." [1]
[1]: Rocca (2009:21).
Suits of armor were incorporated into the funerary monument for Simon’s brothers (I Maccabees 13), suggesting a rigid body suitable for display. The "muscle cuirass" was in wide use across the Hellenic world.