Stone Walls Non Mortared List
A viewset for viewing and editing Stone Walls Non Mortared.
GET /api/wf/stone-walls-non-mortared/
{ "count": 363, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/wf/stone-walls-non-mortared/?page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 308, "year_from": -5000, "year_to": -4000, "description": " 'At Hacınebi already in Level A evidence for a massive stone buttressed wall, nearly four meters in height, and monumental mudbrick platforms, were discovered'.§REF§Rana Özbal, ‘The Chalcolithic of Southeast Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 187§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 159, "name": "TrClcLT", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -3000, "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic", "new_name": "tr_konya_lca", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 309, "year_from": -3999, "year_to": -3001, "description": " 'At Hacınebi already in Level A evidence for a massive stone buttressed wall, nearly four meters in height, and monumental mudbrick platforms, were discovered'.§REF§Rana Özbal, ‘The Chalcolithic of Southeast Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 187§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "polity": { "id": 159, "name": "TrClcLT", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -3000, "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic", "new_name": "tr_konya_lca", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 114, "year_from": -2700, "year_to": -1701, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "polity": { "id": 85, "name": "InDecNL", "start_year": -2700, "end_year": -1200, "long_name": "Deccan - Neolithic", "new_name": "in_deccan_nl", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The South Indian Neolithic lasted from about 3000 to 1200 BCE. Here we are particularly interested in the northern part of the modern-day Indian state of Karnataka, where Neolithic communities appear to have been small, egalitarian, and reliant on pastoralism (mostly cattle), agriculture (mostly millet and pulses), and hunting and gathering. The prevalence of cattle motifs in rock art, as well as the number of ashmounds (large mounds of burned cattle dung) dotting the landscape, point to the symbolic importance of cattle in South Indian Neolithic ideology as a whole. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 62-65) Johansen, Peter. 2014. “The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India.” Journal of Social Archaeology 14 (1): 59-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The presence of only minor variations in house size, design and content, as well as in mortuary practices, suggests an egalitarian society during this period. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 63) Johansen, Peter. 2014. “The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India.” Journal of Social Archaeology 14 (1): 59-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR</a>. §REF§ No population estimates are provided by the literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 115, "year_from": -1700, "year_to": -1200, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 85, "name": "InDecNL", "start_year": -2700, "end_year": -1200, "long_name": "Deccan - Neolithic", "new_name": "in_deccan_nl", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The South Indian Neolithic lasted from about 3000 to 1200 BCE. Here we are particularly interested in the northern part of the modern-day Indian state of Karnataka, where Neolithic communities appear to have been small, egalitarian, and reliant on pastoralism (mostly cattle), agriculture (mostly millet and pulses), and hunting and gathering. The prevalence of cattle motifs in rock art, as well as the number of ashmounds (large mounds of burned cattle dung) dotting the landscape, point to the symbolic importance of cattle in South Indian Neolithic ideology as a whole. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 62-65) Johansen, Peter. 2014. “The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India.” Journal of Social Archaeology 14 (1): 59-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The presence of only minor variations in house size, design and content, as well as in mortuary practices, suggests an egalitarian society during this period. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 63) Johansen, Peter. 2014. “The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India.” Journal of Social Archaeology 14 (1): 59-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR</a>. §REF§ No population estimates are provided by the literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 318, "year_from": -1180, "year_to": -1000, "description": " following evidence between 1000 BCE and 700 BCE: Urartu’s craftsmen used iron picks and hammers to forge horizontal planes out of bedrock on which to erect the empire’s numerous and imposing stone fortresses.§REF§Lori Khatchadourian, ‘The Iron Age in Eastern Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 480§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 165, "name": "TrNHitt", "start_year": -1180, "end_year": -900, "long_name": "Neo-Hittite Kingdoms", "new_name": "tr_neo_hittite_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After Hattusa was destroyed by fire ending the New Kingdom period of the Hittites §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ elements of the Hittite civilization lingered in peripheral areas of the former kingdom §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ which included the Konya Plain region. The primary region of the Syro-Hittite kingdoms was however in Syria. The small states lasted for almost 500 years and were culturally and politically prominent from c900 BCE until the last of them fell to the Assyrian king Sargon II between 717-708 BCE. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ The cultural links between these kingdoms and the Late Bronze Age Hittite Empire can be seen in the iconography and architecture. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 47) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>In the 1180-900 BCE post-Empire period the region reorganized into city-states. §REF§ (Thuesen 2002, 43) I Thuesen. 2002. \"The Neo-Hittite City-States\" in Mogens, H H ed. A Comparative Study of Six City-state Cultures: An Investigation, Volume 27. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. §REF§ The earliest written records suggest there was no kind of federation, \"each was entirely independent from the others, each had its own autonomous ruler.\" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 52) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ The label 'Neo-Hittite' applies to 15 states spread through south-eastern Anatolia and northern Syria. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 2) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Those present in the area around or on the Konya Plain were the following: Pisidia; Pamphylia; Lycaonia; Tabal; Cilicia (Hilakku and Que). §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 32) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>Although there was some continuity with the preceding period major cultural changes occurred in the Neo-Hittite era. According to Bryce (2012) \"Hittite cuneiform disappeared entirely. There is not the slightest trace of it in any of the Iron Age successor-kingdoms of the Hittites. One might reasonably suppose that along with the disappearance of the written language, Nesite also disappeared as a spoken one.\" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 16) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Although we do not have any historical records associated with this epoch, historians have speculated that the society of this era used the Hieroglyphic Luwian language. §REF§ (Popko 1999, 93-111) M Popko. 1999. Ludy i języki starożytnej Anatolii. Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog. Warszawa. pp.93-111 §REF§ §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2008, 207) M Van de Mieroop. 2008. Historia starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu ok. 3000-323 p.n.e. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Kraków. §REF§ I. Yakibovich has suggested that the core area of Luwian population was located in central Anatolia, in the region of the Konya Plain. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 17) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>Many Neo-Hittite rulers took the titles \"Great King\" and \"Hero\" and it is likely an administrative centre existed in the central town. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 80) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ At the better known Neo-Hittite site of Carchemish, in western Anatolia, a central bureaucracy is known which had scribes, clerks and other officials §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 54) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ ; although \"Carchemish and probably Malatya apparently continued from their Late Bronze Age predecessors with little or no interruption\" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 63) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ which might not be the case for other lesser-known polities of the Neo-Hittite states.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-12-19T09:00:40.512130Z", "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 319, "year_from": -1000, "year_to": -901, "description": " following evidence between 1000 BCE and 700 BCE: Urartu’s craftsmen used iron picks and hammers to forge horizontal planes out of bedrock on which to erect the empire’s numerous and imposing stone fortresses.§REF§Lori Khatchadourian, ‘The Iron Age in Eastern Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 480§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "polity": { "id": 165, "name": "TrNHitt", "start_year": -1180, "end_year": -900, "long_name": "Neo-Hittite Kingdoms", "new_name": "tr_neo_hittite_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After Hattusa was destroyed by fire ending the New Kingdom period of the Hittites §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ elements of the Hittite civilization lingered in peripheral areas of the former kingdom §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ which included the Konya Plain region. The primary region of the Syro-Hittite kingdoms was however in Syria. The small states lasted for almost 500 years and were culturally and politically prominent from c900 BCE until the last of them fell to the Assyrian king Sargon II between 717-708 BCE. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ The cultural links between these kingdoms and the Late Bronze Age Hittite Empire can be seen in the iconography and architecture. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 47) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>In the 1180-900 BCE post-Empire period the region reorganized into city-states. §REF§ (Thuesen 2002, 43) I Thuesen. 2002. \"The Neo-Hittite City-States\" in Mogens, H H ed. A Comparative Study of Six City-state Cultures: An Investigation, Volume 27. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. §REF§ The earliest written records suggest there was no kind of federation, \"each was entirely independent from the others, each had its own autonomous ruler.\" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 52) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ The label 'Neo-Hittite' applies to 15 states spread through south-eastern Anatolia and northern Syria. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 2) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Those present in the area around or on the Konya Plain were the following: Pisidia; Pamphylia; Lycaonia; Tabal; Cilicia (Hilakku and Que). §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 32) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>Although there was some continuity with the preceding period major cultural changes occurred in the Neo-Hittite era. According to Bryce (2012) \"Hittite cuneiform disappeared entirely. There is not the slightest trace of it in any of the Iron Age successor-kingdoms of the Hittites. One might reasonably suppose that along with the disappearance of the written language, Nesite also disappeared as a spoken one.\" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 16) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Although we do not have any historical records associated with this epoch, historians have speculated that the society of this era used the Hieroglyphic Luwian language. §REF§ (Popko 1999, 93-111) M Popko. 1999. Ludy i języki starożytnej Anatolii. Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog. Warszawa. pp.93-111 §REF§ §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2008, 207) M Van de Mieroop. 2008. Historia starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu ok. 3000-323 p.n.e. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Kraków. §REF§ I. Yakibovich has suggested that the core area of Luwian population was located in central Anatolia, in the region of the Konya Plain. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 17) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ <br>Many Neo-Hittite rulers took the titles \"Great King\" and \"Hero\" and it is likely an administrative centre existed in the central town. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 80) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ At the better known Neo-Hittite site of Carchemish, in western Anatolia, a central bureaucracy is known which had scribes, clerks and other officials §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 54) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ ; although \"Carchemish and probably Malatya apparently continued from their Late Bronze Age predecessors with little or no interruption\" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 63) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ which might not be the case for other lesser-known polities of the Neo-Hittite states.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-12-19T09:00:40.512130Z", "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 294, "year_from": 1632, "year_to": 1642, "description": " Only gravel is mentioned: \"When speaking of structures, we should also mention the fact that in the old days the Yakuts knew how to make fortifications or ostrozhki, as they were called in the Russian texts of the 17th century. For example, in 1636-1637, during the campaign against the Kangalastsy, the Russian Cossacks found that “they had built strong forts with two walls covered with gravel, and surrounded by snow and water;” it was only after a two-day assault that the Cossacks managed to take one of these forts. In 1642 the Russians also took a Yakut fortress after great difficulty: “. . . the fort was made with two walls, the space between the walls was filled with earth, and there were log towers.” At a later stage these fortifications disappeared, and no one has described them since in detail. But even in the 19th century it was possible to find special tower-like barns here and there, which belonged to the Toyons.\" §REF§Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts.” Peoples Of Siberia, 265§REF§ We have assumed that these gravel coverings can be considered non-mortared stone walls. This remains in need of confirmation.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "polity": { "id": 195, "name": "RuYakuL", "start_year": 1632, "end_year": 1900, "long_name": "Sakha - Late", "new_name": "ru_sakha_late", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Lena River Valley, also known as Sakha, is a territory in eastern Siberia over four times the size of Texas. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 1) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ One of the coldest places on Earth, it has been home to the Sakha people since at least the 13th century CE. §REF§ (Gogolev 1992, 65) Gogolev, A. I. 1992. “Basic Stages of the Formation of the Yakut People.” Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia 31 (2): 63-69. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F428XZIE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F428XZIE</a>. §REF§ Cossacks first arrived in the 1620s, and after a long siege of a Sakha fortified settlement, the entire region was placed under tribute to the Russian czar in 1642. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ The region remained under czarist control until the Russian Revolution, when it was one of the last Russian territories to be consolidated under the new regime. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Prior to Russian rule, the region was not politically centralized. Early Sakha communities were governed by lineage councils, clans, and elders rather than a bureaucratic state apparatus. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 7) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ After the Russian occupation, the czarist administration imposed taxes and established an administrative infrastructure. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 220) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W</a>. §REF§ For most of the rest of its Russian history, the territory was controlled by governors under the umbrella of the czarist regime. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 224) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W</a>. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to find population estimates forSakha. It was very sparsely populated, and according to one account of a late 18th-century expedition to the region, the district of Gigansk (in the Lena River Valley) had 4834 'tributary natives' in 1784 but only 1938 by 1789. §REF§ (Sauer 1802, 112) Sauer, Martin. 1802. An Account of a Geographical and Astronomical Expedition to the Northern Parts of Russia. London: T. Cadell, Jun. and W. Davies, in the Strand. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEZG6MTS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEZG6MTS</a>. §REF§ The account unfortunately does not provide figures for the entirety of the province.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 25, "name": "Lena River Valley", "subregion": "Siberia", "longitude": "129.379494854000", "latitude": "63.462822242300", "capital_city": "Yakutsk", "nga_code": "YAK", "fao_country": "Russia", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Siberia", "subregions_list": "Urals, West Siberia, Central Siberia, Yakutia", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 295, "year_from": 1643, "year_to": 1900, "description": " Only gravel is mentioned: \"When speaking of structures, we should also mention the fact that in the old days the Yakuts knew how to make fortifications or ostrozhki, as they were called in the Russian texts of the 17th century. For example, in 1636-1637, during the campaign against the Kangalastsy, the Russian Cossacks found that “they had built strong forts with two walls covered with gravel, and surrounded by snow and water;” it was only after a two-day assault that the Cossacks managed to take one of these forts. In 1642 the Russians also took a Yakut fortress after great difficulty: “. . . the fort was made with two walls, the space between the walls was filled with earth, and there were log towers.” At a later stage these fortifications disappeared, and no one has described them since in detail. But even in the 19th century it was possible to find special tower-like barns here and there, which belonged to the Toyons.\" §REF§Tokarev, S. A., and Gurvich I. S. 1964. “Yakuts.” Peoples Of Siberia, 265§REF§ We have assumed that these gravel coverings can be considered non-mortared stone walls. This remains in need of confirmation.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "absent", "polity": { "id": 195, "name": "RuYakuL", "start_year": 1632, "end_year": 1900, "long_name": "Sakha - Late", "new_name": "ru_sakha_late", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Lena River Valley, also known as Sakha, is a territory in eastern Siberia over four times the size of Texas. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 1) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ One of the coldest places on Earth, it has been home to the Sakha people since at least the 13th century CE. §REF§ (Gogolev 1992, 65) Gogolev, A. I. 1992. “Basic Stages of the Formation of the Yakut People.” Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia 31 (2): 63-69. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F428XZIE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F428XZIE</a>. §REF§ Cossacks first arrived in the 1620s, and after a long siege of a Sakha fortified settlement, the entire region was placed under tribute to the Russian czar in 1642. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ The region remained under czarist control until the Russian Revolution, when it was one of the last Russian territories to be consolidated under the new regime. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Prior to Russian rule, the region was not politically centralized. Early Sakha communities were governed by lineage councils, clans, and elders rather than a bureaucratic state apparatus. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 7) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ After the Russian occupation, the czarist administration imposed taxes and established an administrative infrastructure. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 220) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W</a>. §REF§ For most of the rest of its Russian history, the territory was controlled by governors under the umbrella of the czarist regime. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 224) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W</a>. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to find population estimates forSakha. It was very sparsely populated, and according to one account of a late 18th-century expedition to the region, the district of Gigansk (in the Lena River Valley) had 4834 'tributary natives' in 1784 but only 1938 by 1789. §REF§ (Sauer 1802, 112) Sauer, Martin. 1802. An Account of a Geographical and Astronomical Expedition to the Northern Parts of Russia. London: T. Cadell, Jun. and W. Davies, in the Strand. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEZG6MTS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEZG6MTS</a>. §REF§ The account unfortunately does not provide figures for the entirety of the province.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 25, "name": "Lena River Valley", "subregion": "Siberia", "longitude": "129.379494854000", "latitude": "63.462822242300", "capital_city": "Yakutsk", "nga_code": "YAK", "fao_country": "Russia", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Siberia", "subregions_list": "Urals, West Siberia, Central Siberia, Yakutia", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 36, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "present", "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "EgAyyub", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250, "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "new_name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Ayyubid Sultanate was established in Egypt by Saladin (Ṣalāḥ-al-dīn), a member of the Kurdish Ayyubid family who had risen to prominence in Syria in the service of a local ruling dynasty, the Zangids. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 24 February 2017). §REF§ In 1168-69 CE, the Zangid prince Nur al-Din placed Saladin's uncle, Shirkuh, in command of a military expedition to Egypt (at that time under Fatimid rule) to take control of the country and expel the invading Frankish Crusaders. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 218) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 290) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Saladin accompanied him and was appointed vizier of Egypt by the Fatimid caliph when Shirkuh died in 1169. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 24 February 2017). §REF§ <br>Saladin, however, did not have the local dynasty's interests at heart. He immediately set about undermining its power and the Ismaili (Shi'a) Islam professed by its elite in favour of a new Sunni order, in theory loyal to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 210-11) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ We begin our Ayyubid Sultanate polity in 1171, when the last Fatimid caliph, Al-Adid, died and Saladin progressed from vizier to sultan in Egypt. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 210) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ He nevertheless suppressed his ambitions until his old Zangid overlord Nur al-Din died in 1174, after which he launched a successful campaign of military expansion into the Levant and Upper Mesopotamia, as well as a brief 'holy war' on the Crusader states along the Levantine coast. §REF§ (Lyons and Jackson 1982, 201) Malcolm Cameron Lyons and D. E. P. Jackson. 1982. <i>Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ <br>A succession crisis followed Saladin's death in 1193, and a devastating famine in 1200 reduced parts of the population to cannibalism. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 226) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, Saladin's brother, al-'Adil, declared himself sultan in 1200 and managed to impose some degree of internal stability on the empire, §REF§ (Humphreys 1977, 125-26) R. Stephen Humphreys. 1977. <i>From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193‒1260</i>. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. §REF§ which was split into the kingdoms of Egypt, Damascus, Aleppo and Mosul. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The reign of al-'Adil's son, al-Kamil, from 1218 to 1238 CE, was also a relatively stable and prosperous period in Egypt, §REF§ (Werthmuller 2010, 48) Kurt J. Werthmuller. 2010. <i>Coptic Identity and Ayyubid Politics in Egypt, 1218‒1250</i>. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ although he faced opposition from Ayyubid princes in Syria and Palestine. §REF§ (Hamblin 2005, 753) William J. Hamblin. 2005. 'Egypt: Ayyubid Dynasty, 1169-1250', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History, volume 1: A-G</i>, edited by Kevin Shillington, 752-54. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn. §REF§ <br>As-Salih Ayyub, the sultan who came to power in 1240 CE, §REF§ (Keenan 1999, 287) James G. Keenan. 1999. 'Fayyum Agriculture at the End of the Ayyubid Era: Nabulsi's <i>Survey'.</i> <i>Proceedings of the British Academy</i> 96: 287-99. §REF§ attempted to enhance his power at the expense of other Ayyubid princely lines by purchasing many more Turkish Mamluks (high-ranking slave soldiers) than his predecessors. §REF§ (Levanoni 1990, 124) Amalia Levanoni. 1990. 'The Mamluks' Ascent to Power in Egypt'. <i>Studia Islamica</i> 72: 121-44. §REF§ They served him as a military and governmental elite. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ §REF§ (Levanoni 1990, 124) Amalia Levanoni. 1990. 'The Mamluks' Ascent to Power in Egypt'. <i>Studia Islamica</i> 72: 121-44. §REF§ The Mamluks' increasingly powerful position proved to be the downfall of the Ayyubid Sultanate when, after Salih-Ayyub's death in 1249, one faction (the Bahriyya Mamluks) assassinated his son Turanshah and seized the throne. §REF§ (Levanoni 1990, 137) Amalia Levanoni. 1990. 'The Mamluks' Ascent to Power in Egypt'. <i>Studia Islamica</i> 72: 121-44. §REF§ The Ayyubid dynasty hung onto power in Syria until 1260, when the Mamluks defeated the invading Mongols at 'Ayn Jalut and gained popular recognition of their right to rule as 'saviours of Islam'. §REF§ (Northrup 1998, 248) Linda S. Northrup. 1998. 'The Baḥrī Mamlūk Sultanate, 1250‒1390', in <i>The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1: Islamic Egypt, 640‒1517</i>, edited by Carl F. Petry, 242-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, we end our Ayyubid period with the assassination of Turanshah, the last Ayyubid sultan of Egypt.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Ayyubids made use of the pre-existing Fatimid bureaucratic system to administer Egypt, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 246) I. M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and ruled via a Turkish and Kurdish 'military aristocracy', including some slave (Mamluk) regiments. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lev 2010, 210, 213) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ This was funded by the distribution of <i>iqta's</i> ‒ rights to tax revenue from estates of land ‒ in exchange for military and administrative services. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291, 877) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Saladin and his successors also promoted Sunni Islam in the empire by sponsoring law schools (<i>madrasas</i>) to serve as centres for the teaching of Sunni law. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291, 877) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Ayyubid Sultanate was never particularly centralized: it has been described as a 'family confederation', meaning that male members of the ruling dynasty were given principalities across the realm and allowed to govern them with substantial political autonomy. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ Kinship ties determined relationships between different princes, so that, for example, two brothers ruling different regions would have less authority over each other than a father would over his son. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', <i>Encyclopӕdia Iranica</i> III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ However, the sultan of Egypt was usually successful in asserting his suzerainty over the other kingdoms. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291, 877) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. <i>A History of Islamic Societies</i>, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to find substantiated estimates for the population of the entire Ayyubid Sultanate, but there were about 2.4 million people in Egypt under Saladin. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 149) M. W. Dols. 1977. <i>The Black Death in the Middle East</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 20, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "stone_walls_non_mortared", "stone_walls_non_mortared": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 543, "name": "CnPeili", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -5001, "long_name": "Peiligang", "new_name": "cn_peiligang", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Peiligang culture existed from 7000 to 5000 BC in the Yi-Luo river basin of the Middle Yellow River Valley (modern Henan Province, China). There have been over 100 sites along river banks identified with this Neolithic culture. §REF§ (Liu, 2005. 25)Li Liu. 2005. The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States. Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Archaeologists have found bone and stone tools and ceramics from the period as well as weapons including harpoons with bone points, stone spears, and arrows which suggests evidence of the use of bows during this time.<br>The people of the Peiligang culture hunted deer and wild boar and fished using nets. Animal husbandry was also practiced, with pigs, dogs and possibly chickens being reared. §REF§ (Liu, 2005. 25)Li Liu. 2005. The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States. Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Stone tools were used for harvesting millet. Pottery that has been unearthed – some of the oldest pottery found in China - was using for cooking and food storage.<br>Little is known about the settlements and hierarchies during this period, but archaeologists generally agree that it was an egalitarian society with little to no political organisation and that settlements were small and self-sufficient. §REF§ (Liu, 2005. 25)Li Liu. 2005. The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States. Cambridge University Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:27:50.070756Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }