Leather Cloth List
A viewset for viewing and editing Leather Cloth.
GET /api/wf/leathers/?ordering=tag&page=2
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Named after the site where British archaeologist Flinders Petrie uncovered a necropolis of over 3000 graves in the late 19th century, §REF§ (Midant-Reynes 2000, 41) Béatrix Midant-Reynes. 2000. 'The Naqada Period (c. 4000-3200 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 41-56. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ the Naqada culture is dated from around 3800 to 3100 BCE. §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 5) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society A</i> 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ The Naqada has been subdivided into three periods ‒ the Amratian, Gerzean, and Semainean ‒ as well as, more recently, into Naqada IA-C, IIA-D, and IIIA-D. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 424) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 2) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society A</i> 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ Seshat's 'Naqada 1' (3800-3550 BCE) corresponds to the Naqada IA-IIB phases; Naqada 2 (3550-3300 BCE) to IIC-IID; and Naqada 3 (3300-3100 BCE) to IIIA-IIIB. We end Naqada 3 with the IIIB-C transition, because the First Dynasty of the Egyptian state is considered to begin with the accession of King Aha in Naqada IIIC. §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 2) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society A</i> 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ Naqada III is also sometimes referred to as the Protodynastic period or 'Dynasty 0'.<br>Early Naqada archaeological material is clustered around the key sites of Naqada itself, Abydos, and Hierakonpolis (ancient Nekhen) in the fertile land nestled around the 'Qena bend' of the Nile. §REF§ (Bard 1994, 267) Kathryn A. Bard. 1994. 'The Egyptian Predynastic: A Review of the Evidence'. <i>Journal of Field Archaeology</i> 21 (3): 265-88. §REF§ However, from the late Naqada II onwards, there is an archaeologically visible expansion of the culture both southwards along the Nile and northwards into Lower Egypt (the Delta), eventually reaching as far north as the Levant in Naqada IIIA-B. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 442-43) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ <br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The 4th millennium BCE was a crucial period for Egyptian state formation. Prior to roughly 3800 BCE, Upper Egypt was inhabited by seasonally mobile farmers and herders, constituting an archaeological culture known as the Badarian. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422, 428-29) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ However, the Naqada periods brought a series of key social transformations to the region, including increasing inequality, a greater commitment to sedentary settlement and cereal farming, the emergence of full-time craft specialists, and, towards the end of the millennium, the invention of writing. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 431-32, 434) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Hendrickx 2011, 93) Stan Hendrickx. 2011. 'Crafts and Craft Specialization', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 93-98. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ §REF§ (Wengrow 2011, 99) David Wengrow. 2011. 'The Invention of Writing in Egypt', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 99-103. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ The growth of hierarchical social structures and the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt laid the foundations for the divine kings and complex bureaucracy of the Old Kingdom and beyond.<br>During Naqada I, new forms of political organization appeared ‒ relatively swiftly compared to other prehistoric cultures ‒ in the upper Nile Valley. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 431-32) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ According to the Egyptologist Branislav Anđelković, previously autonomous agricultural villages began to band together to form 'chiefdoms' or 'proto-nomes' between Naqada IA and IB (a 'nome' was an administrative division in the later Egyptian state). §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 28) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ In Naqada IC, even larger political entities ‒ 'nome pre-states' ‒ started to form, centred on Naqada, Abydos and Hierakonpolis. It has been suggested that a 'primitive chiefdom' centred around a 'royal' authority based at Hierakonpolis, had formed by around 3700 BCE. §REF§ (García 2013, 187-88) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the Third Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power, Generating Authority: Cosmos, Politics, and the Ideology of Kingship in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by Jane A. Hill, Philip Jones, and Antonio J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ Not all researchers agree with this terminology, believing that it creates the impression of an inexorable march towards state formation, and some prefer to stress the fragile and experimental nature of early complex social formations in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422, 427) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ However, the term chiefdom remains in common usage as a label for the new ranked societies of the early 4th millennium. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Bard 2017, 2) Kathryn A. Bard. 2017. 'Political Economies of Predynastic Egypt and the Formation of the Early State'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 25: 1-36. §REF§ §REF§ (Koehler 2010, 32) E. Christiana Koehler. 2010. 'Prehistory', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 25-47. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In the Naqada II period, 'proto-states' formed, and by the Naqada III we can speak of kings and a centralized government ruling over a unified Upper and Lower Egypt. §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 29-30) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ <br>We lack firm figures for the population of Egypt during the Naqada. At the beginning of the period, most inhabitants of Upper Egypt were living in small villages. §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 28) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ However, as the 4th millennium progressed, archaeologists can discern a process of urbanization and aggregation into larger political units. The largest known settlement, Hierakonpolis, grew into a regional centre of power in the 3800‒3500 BCE period §REF§ (Friedman 2011, 34) Renée Friedman. 2011. 'Hierakonpolis', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 33-44. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ and may have reached a population of between 5,000 and 10,000 people in the late Naqada I. §REF§ (Hoffman, Hamroush and Allen 1986, 181) Michael Allen Hoffman, Hany A. Hamroush and Ralph O. Allen. 1986. 'A Model of Urban Development for the Hierakonpolis Region from Predynastic through Old Kingdom Times'. <i>Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i> 23: 175-87. §REF§ Other researchers consider this figure 'inflated' §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 436) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ and point to recent evidence from the Abydos region for low population numbers throughout the Predynastic period. §REF§ (Patch 2004, 914) Diana Craig Patch. 2004. 'Settlement Patterns and Cultural Change in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams</i>, edited by S. Hendrickx, R. F. Friedman, K. M. Ciałowicz and M. Chłodnicki, 905-18. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 55, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " For Abbasid Caliphate: Used for shields. §REF§Kennedy, the Armies of the Caliphs pp. 168-178§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "EgTulIk", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969, "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "new_name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Egypt in the years between 868 and 969 CE is notable for frequent changes in rulers, including three separate regimes in just over a century: the Tulunid Dynasty, the Abbasid Restoration Period, and the Ikshidid Dynasty, which eventually gave way to the Fatimid Caliphate. The Tulunids were a Turkic Dynasty who established an independent rule over Egypt and parts of Syria during a time of instability caused by infighting in the Abbasid court in Damascus. There was a notable 'flowering' of the arts under the Tulunid rulers, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ but the highs and lows of this era of instability are best encapsulated by the reign of Khumarawayh. Although Egypt saw 'peace and prosperity' under his rule, it has been argued that his extravagant lifestyle and 'lavish' spending on building projects and the maintenance of a large standing army 'overtaxed the state's resources'. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ 'When Khumarawayh was murdered by one of his slaves in 896, the treasury was reportedly empty'. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Egypt during the Tulunid-Ikshidid period has been described as 'an autonomous state, albeit under Abbasid suzerainty'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ When Ahmad ibn Tulun was appointed prefect or governor of Egypt in 868 CE, it was a province of the Abbasid Caliphate. Tulun, who was of Turkish ancestry, was recruited from the military §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 24) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Middleton, ed. 2015, 966) J. Middleton, ed. 2015. <i>World Monarchies and Dynasties</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ and 'never formally repudiated Abbasid authority'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 24) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ He took advantage of a revolt in Palestine and Syria to build up a new Egyptian army of Turkish, Nubian, and Greek mercenaries and slaves, which he paid for by seizing control of the revenue of Egypt from the Abbasid-appointed financial director in 871 CE. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ Ibn Tulun also annexed Syria. §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 130) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>With his new army and the Abbasids distracted by unrest in the Levant, Ibn Tulun worked to increase Egyptian autonomy from the caliph in Baghdad; §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ he stopped sending taxes to the Abbasids and established a new capital at al-Qatai, at the neck of the Nile Delta near Fustat. §REF§ (Middleton, ed. 2015, 966) J. Middleton, ed. 2015. <i>World Monarchies and Dynasties</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ This de facto arrangement became official in 886 CE, when a treaty with the Abbasid Dynasty decreed that Khumarawayh and his successors would govern Egypt for a term of three decades §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ - although Egypt would in fact be under Abbasid control again from 905 to 935 CE. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 34) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ After the Ikshidids gained control of Egypt under Muhammad ibn Tughj (935‒946 CE), §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ the Abbasids, in a similar treaty in 939 CE, granted the governorship of Egypt and Syria to 'the Ikshid and his heirs' for 30 years. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>The Tulunid governing apparatus included a vizier, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 35) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ who, after the administrative reforms of Ibn Tulun, §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 130) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ apparently ran a competent bureaucracy that oversaw huge spending projects. Ibn Tulun built an aqueduct and a <i>maristan</i> (hospital), which cost 60,000 dinars. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Founded in 873 CE, the hospital was the first of its kind in Egypt. There was probably a functioning postal system (the Egyptian section of the Abbasid <i>barid</i>). Luxuries were never far away for the affluent elites, who spent their riches freely: Khumarawayh converted the <i>maydan</i> (city square) into a lush garden in the Mesopotamian tradition, while in the Ikshidid period Kafur's palace near the Birkat Qarun cost a monumental 100,000 dinars. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 27, 34) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The population of Egypt and the Levant at this time may have totalled 6.5 million, §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 138, 229) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ and the largest city, Fustat in Egypt, had perhaps 150,000 residents. §REF§ (Modelski 2003, 55) George Modelski. 2003. <i>World Cities -3000 to 2000</i>. Washington, DC: Faros. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 70, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Leather likely. Organic/metal armour, shields, helmets.§REF§(Koch ed. 2006, 1469) John T. Koch ed. Celtic Culture. A historical Encyclopedia. Volume I. A-Celti. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 452, "name": "FrHallD", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -475, "long_name": "Hallstatt D", "new_name": "fr_hallstatt_d", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Hallstatt culture, named after an archaeological site in Austria and traditionally divided into four phases, was the main cultural complex in Western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It coincides with the North Alpine complex, extending over modern-day central and southern Germany, northern Italy, and Switzerland. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Hallstatt D period (c. 600-475 BCE) §REF§ (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In <i>Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ</a>. §REF§ saw the intensification of processes that had been occurring throughout the Hallstatt era. Some polities disintegrated while others gained power. Thus, the number of hillforts decreased but they grew in size; §REF§ (Allen 2007, 26-27) Allen, Stephen. 2007. <i>Lords of Battle: The World of the Celtic Warrior.</i> Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F9D9PI8A\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F9D9PI8A</a>. §REF§ Mont Lassois is a prime example. §REF§ (Collis 1984, 16) Collis, John. 1984. <i>The European Iron Age.</i> London; New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS</a>. §REF§ Chiefs controlled the prestige economy at the local level, trading with their Mediterranean counterparts. Extreme social differentiation can be observed in burials; §REF§ (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In <i>Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ</a>. §REF§ the lavish Vix Burial, a cairn 42 metres wide and 6 metres high associated with the site of Mont Lassois, §REF§ (Collis 1984, 16, 95) Collis, John. 1984. <i>The European Iron Age.</i> London; New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS</a>. §REF§ includes gold and bronze objects as well as prestigious imports.<br>This period was also marked by the rise of urban centres specializing in administrative and mercantile activities, including colonies and entrepôts established for the purpose of long-distance trade. §REF§ (Collis 1984, 22) Collis, John. 1984. <i>The European Iron Age.</i> London; New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS</a> §REF§ Population estimates are more easily accessible for the Hallstatt D period. The Heuneburg, a hillfort reaching c. 100 hectares in the mid-6th century BCE, may have been home to about 5000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Fernández Götz and Krausse 2012, 31) Fernández-Götz, Manuel, and Dirk Krausse. 2012. “Heuneburg. First City North of the Alps.” <i>Current World Archaeology</i>, no. 55: 28-34. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/PMS9IF2F\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/PMS9IF2F</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 150, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " <i>Almost certainly could be coded present if there is evidence the polity used the shield. At this time it is unlikely the warriors went into battle completely unarmoured.</i>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 502, "name": "IrElmCP", "start_year": -1100, "end_year": -900, "long_name": "Elam - Crisis Period", "new_name": "ir_elam_8", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The period between c. 1100 and the mid-8th century BCE has been seen as one of decline for the Elamite civilization, §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 461) Liverani, Marco. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Translated by Soraia Tabatabai. Abingdon: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Diakonoff 1985, 18) Diakonoff, I. M. 1985. \"Elam.\" In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. II: The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by I. Gershevitch, 1-24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IIDGFEPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IIDGFEPA</a>. §REF§ which had by that time occupied the highlands of the south-western Iranian plateau and the fertile lowlands of the Susiana plain for over a millennium. These historically obscure centuries represent a transitional phase between the Middle Elamite and Neo-Elamite Kingdoms. Following M.-J. Steve, we have split the period at 900 BCE, resulting in a 'crisis phase' between 1100 and 900 and an early Neo-Elamite period between 900 and 744 BCE. §REF§ (Steve 1992, 21-22) Steve, M.-J. 1992. Syllabaire élamite: Histoire et Paléographie. Civilisations Du Proche-Orient 2. Neuchâtel: Recherches et Publications. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NVMM9G55\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NVMM9G55</a>. §REF§ <br>In his 'Elamite war' of 1125-1104 BCE, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar I invaded Elam and forced the Elamite king Hutelutush-Inshushinak to abandon Susa. §REF§ (Carter and Stolper 1984, 43) Carter, Elizabeth, and Matthew W. Stolper. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SDF8S3B\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SDF8S3B</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Vallat 1998) Vallat, F. 1998. \"Elam I: The History of Elam.\" Encyclopaedia Iranica. London: Mazda Publishers. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/elam-i\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/elam-i</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ACKKUDJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ACKKUDJ</a>. §REF§ After this date, there is a drastic reduction in written sources for the history of Elam, both in Mesopotamian documents (either Babylonian or Assyrian) and in inscriptions and tablets from Elam itself. §REF§ (Diakonoff 1985, 18) Diakonoff, I. M. 1985. \"Elam.\" In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. II: The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by I. Gershevitch, 1-24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IIDGFEPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IIDGFEPA</a>. §REF§ The traditional interpretation has been that there was a disintegration of centralized authority in Elam between the Babylonian invasion and the reemergence of well-attested Elamite kings in the 8th century BCE. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 527-28) Liverani, Marco. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Translated by Soraia Tabatabai. Abingdon: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q</a>. §REF§ However, some scholars question this, pointing out that systematic archaeological excavation of many Elamite sites has yet to be carried out. §REF§ Wouter Henkelman 2016, personal communication. §REF§ Further, the gaps in the Mesopotamian historical sources, instead of reflecting the disappearance of Elam as a political entity, may be a function of the political crises and famine that affected Assyria and Babylonia during this period. §REF§ (Diakonoff 1985, 18) Diakonoff, I. M. 1985. \"Elam.\" In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. II: The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by I. Gershevitch, 1-24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IIDGFEPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IIDGFEPA</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Due to a scarcity of evidence, the political organization of Elam in the centuries between c. 1100 and 744 BCE remain unclear. Some archaeologists and historians argue that Elam split into multiple autonomous chiefdoms after the Babylonian invasion, §REF§ (Hansman 1985, 30) Hansman, J. 1985. \"Anshan in the Median and Achaemenian Periods.\" In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol II: The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by I. Gershevitch, 25-35. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IXD6RNNR\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IXD6RNNR</a>. §REF§ while others believe it maintained its unity as an organized and centralized state. §REF§ Wouter Henkelman 2016, personal communication. §REF§ Documents excavated at the site of Anshan dating to the 11th century BCE hint at the survival of some form of royal administration, at least in the highlands. §REF§ (Waters 2000, 10) Waters, Matthew W. 2000. A Survey of Neo-Elamite History. Helsinki: The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JH4EIDJU\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JH4EIDJU</a>. §REF§ <br>Secure population estimates for the area under Elamite control in this period are lacking.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 58, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Not mentioned in the literature. This is interpreted as evidence of absence because this is a culture of low complexity for warfare technology.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "absent", "polity": { "id": 58, "name": "FmTrukL", "start_year": 1886, "end_year": 1948, "long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk", "new_name": "fm_truk_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Chuuk Islands, part of what is today Micronesia, were first settled in the first century CE. §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 1) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. \"Culture Summary: Chuuk.\" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000</a>. §REF§ The name Chuuk, meaning \"high mountains\", comes from the Chuukese language. §REF§ (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA</a>. §REF§ The islands' first contact with Europeans came in 1528, when they were sighted by Spanish explorers. §REF§ (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA</a>. §REF§ In the late 19th century, the Chuuk islands became part of Spanish and German, then Japanese colonial regimes. §REF§ (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA</a>. §REF§ . After the Second World War, where the islands were a major site of conflict in the Pacific Theater, the Chuuk islands became part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific under US administration. §REF§ (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA</a>. §REF§ .<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the pre-colonial period, Chuuk was extremely fragmented politically. Each district had its own chiefship, which was divided between the \"oldest man in the senior female line in the chiefly lineage and the oldest man in the lineage generally.\" §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 4) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. \"Culture Summary: Chuuk.\" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000</a>. §REF§ <br>During the colonial period, the colonial governments superimposed a colonial administration onto the native system. They appointed head chiefs to lead each of the main Micronesian islands, but the individual communities remained fragmented. §REF§ (Bollig, 1927. 124) Bollig, Laurentius. 1927. \"Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People.\" Munster I W.: Aschendorff. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-022\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-022</a>. §REF§ <br>The only available population figures refer to the colonial period. In 1947, Chuuk's population was about 9,200. §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 1) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. \"Culture Summary: Chuuk.\" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 34, "name": "Chuuk Islands", "subregion": "Micronesia", "longitude": "151.601918000000", "latitude": "7.351343000000", "capital_city": "Chuuk", "nga_code": "MI", "fao_country": "Micronesia", "world_region": "Oceania-Australia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 30, "name": "Polynesia", "subregions_list": "Polynesia", "mac_region": { "id": 8, "name": "Oceania-Australia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 99, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " inferred continuity with previous polities in region", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 47, "name": "IdKalin", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 732, "long_name": "Kalingga Kingdom", "new_name": "id_kalingga_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Kalingga, or Ho-ling, is a rather enigmatic polity that seems to be mostly known through contemporary Chinese documents. According to these annals, Kalingga was one of two Javanese coastal centres that interacted with the T'ang court in the fifth century CE, the other one being Ho-lo-tan, in the Tarum basin. §REF§ (Tarling 1993, 203) §REF§ A North Indian Buddhist monk named Gunavarman wrote about his visit to Kalingga in 422, and we know that the polity sent envoys to China in 430, 440, and in the 640s and 660s. §REF§ (Tarling 1993, 203) §REF§ §REF§ (Hall 2011, 106) §REF§ According to Chinese records, by the seventh century, Kalingga had expanded inland, and counted twenty-eight small polities as its allies. §REF§ (Hall 2011, 122) §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Kalingga was likely a monarchy, §REF§ (Hall 2011, 106) §REF§ but overall the sources are silent on the exact details of its political organization. Similarly, no population estimates could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-10-23T16:30:35.922541Z", "home_nga": { "id": 18, "name": "Central Java", "subregion": "Indonesia", "longitude": "110.403498000000", "latitude": "-6.985678000000", "capital_city": "Semarang", "nga_code": "JV", "fao_country": "Indonesia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 42, "name": "Archipelago", "subregions_list": "Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 146, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 508, "name": "IrAkKoy", "start_year": 1339, "end_year": 1501, "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu", "new_name": "ir_ak_koynlu", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Ak Koyunlu were a loose confederation of nomadic Turkman tribes that ruled in Iran between 1339-1501 CE. §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ They formed an alliance with the Timurid Emirate (1370-1526 CE) until Uzun Hasan (r. c1453-1478 CE) declared himself an independent sultan. §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ Their rule was ended by the Safavids in 1501 CE. §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ <br>The initial Ak Koyunlu government system was not complex; the sultan, a member of the Bayandor clan, was the head of a confederation §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) QR Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ and obliged to attend and abide by the decisions of a powerful council of Amirs (kengac) and tribal chiefs (boy kanlari). This collective \"determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate\". §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ However, by Qara Otman (c1398 CE) the Ak Koyunlu had gained \"at least a rudimentary bureaucratic apparatus of the Iranian-Islamic type.\" §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ in addition to support from more tribes, and better relations with Christian sedentary people.<br>In the second half of the fifthteenth century, the complexity of state institutions increased another step with the conquest of eastern Iran. §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ Uzun Hasan maintained the existing administrative system as well as their officials. §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ Woods (1998) notes that there is evidence of an attempt to standardize and regularize administrative and financial procedures. §REF§ (Woods 1998, 108) J E Woods. 1999. The Aqquyunlu. Clan, Confederation, Empire. Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 106, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Leather or cloth armor was known from the Egyptians at the very least,§REF§Gabriel (2003:43)§REF§ and the tribal militias were unlikely to have been issued armor from the regime, leaving them to equip themselves.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "IlYisrl", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722, "long_name": "Yisrael", "new_name": "il_yisrael", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "_Short description_<br>The ancient kingdom of Israel 1030-722 CE was a monarchy established by Israelite people that was eventually conquered by the Assyrian Empire. Initially a monarchic union with Judah, around 930 BCE the Northern Kingdom (Israel) gained autonomy. In the 9th century Israel entered an anti-Assyria coalition but from Jehu (841 BCE) paid them tribute and thereafter were frequently a vassal of the Mesopotamian empire. After a revolt against Assyria in 727 CE the Assyrians ended the polity sending many of its inhabitants into exile.<br>The century authorities ruled through administrative centers and fortresses sites that had \"public buildings and ... large open spaces.\" §REF§ (Finkelstein 2013, 104)Israel Finkelstein. 2013. The Forgotten Kingdom: The Archaeology and History of Northern Israel. Society of Biblical Literature. Atlanta, GA. Available online <a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/pubs/9781589839106_OA.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">here</a>. §REF§ Local administration may have been through tribal elders who may have been responsible for tax collection. Our image of a centralized monarchy (for some of or the whole of the period) might be tempered by the ideas of Pfoh (2008) who has argued Israel was actually a \"patronage kingdom\" in which a monarchy did not control a truly unitary state. Nevertheless, Israel possessed a standing army with a strong chariot corps, and used weapons of iron and bronze. Fortifications were many and imposing, and the Palace of Omri was one of the grandest in the Ancient Near East.<br>At its height, Israel imposed tribute on many of the surrounding kingdoms, not only Judah but Moab, Edom, and perhaps others as well. The Israelite population primarily lived in cities and towns in the hills, with fortified cities protecting the frontiers on the plains and dominating major trade routes through the region. Trade linked Israel with its northern neighbor Phoenicia, particularly through the port of Dor. At the height of its power, Israel was also a significant military force, contributing the largest contingent to the regional coalition that turned back Assyria's first attempt to conquer the Levant.<br>At least some of the population was literate even before the 10th Century BCE, though the prevalence of literacy is disputed. While the majority of the populace lived in small towns and villages, a significant fraction lived in walled cities such as the capital, Samaria. Most of the economy was in agriculture and pastoral production; staples for export included grain, wine, and oil. In the eighth century BCE the population likely exceeded well over a quarter of a million people, a vast increase on the less than 100,000 people estimated for the earliest times.<br><br/><br>_Oren's long description_<br>How the Kingdom of Israel began is a matter of dispute. The Bible depicts it as originally being the greater part of the old Israelite tribal confederation, and then a part of the United Monarchy under Saul, David, and Solomon (c. 1030 BCE)—before seceding during the rule of Rehaboam, and forming its own state. This narrative is more or less accepted by some archaeologists such as Mazar, while others such as Finkelstein assert that Israel actually emerged first from a process of gradual state formation, with the southern kingdom of Judah emerging later. §REF§ Cf. Finkelstein/Mazar (2007). §REF§ <br>Regardless, the two kingdoms always had close interactions, and the northern kingdom of Israel was almost always the dominant one. At its height, Israel imposed tribute on many of the surrounding kingdoms, not only Judah but Moab, Edom, and perhaps others as well. The Israelite population primarily lived in cities and towns in the hills, with fortified cities protecting the frontiers on the plains and dominating major trade routes through the region. Trade linked Israel with its northern neighbor Phoenicia, particularly through the port of Dor. At the height of its power, Israel was also a significant military force, contributing the largest contingent to the regional coalition that turned back Assyria's first attempt to conquer the Levant. Israel featured a standing army with a strong chariot corps, with weapons of iron and bronze. Fortifications were many and imposing, and the Palace of Omri was one of the grandest in the Ancient Near East.<br>However, starting with the assassination of the Omrid king Jehoram by Jehu (c. 841 BCE), Israel's fortunes waned; and it spent the rest of its existence as the tributary of either Aram or Assyria, depending on which of the two empires were ascendent. Even when the economy of Israel flourished during particular periods of the next century (as attested to by the greater incidence of luxury goods in archaeological finds), Israel was still subject to the depredations of foreign powers, being invaded several times. Ultimately, following an ill-fated rebellion against Assyria, the polity of Israel was dissolved (c. 722 BCE), its people exiled, and the land turned into an Assyrian province.<br>Israelite politics were marked with instability. In contrast to the kingdom of Judah, which featured a single ruling dynasty that traced its beginnings to David, Israelite kings frequently met violent ends. These would typically be at the hands of rebellious military commanders who would seize the throne, though such rebels ran the risk of being deposed themselves in short order. Zimri, one rebel captain, would rule for only a single week before losing the support of the army to rival captain Omri, founder of the Omrid Dynasty.<br>At least some of the population was literate even before the 10th Century BCE, though the prevalence of literacy is disputed. While the majority of the populace lived in small towns and villages, a significant fraction lived in walled cities such as the capital, Samaria. Most of the economy was in agriculture and pastoral production; staples for export included grain, wine, and oil.<br>A word of caution is in order about coding methodology. Much of the evidence we have about this polity comes from archaeological finds. However, the brute fact of an archaeological artifact is often used as the basis for considerable interpretation and conjecture. Methods have been improving over time, but still some archaeologists tend to leap far ahead of what the evidence will support. Additionally, the meaning of many finds is hotly disputed by archaeologists, each faction insisting for its point of view.<br>Worse, scholars of this particular polity often operate with ideological motives - either to prove the essential historicity of the Bible, or to disprove it—which can distort their claims. Israel Finkelstein, for example, once claimed that King David never existed, before having to revise his view after the discovery of the Tel Dan Stela. §REF§ Cf. Finkelstein/Mazar (2007). §REF§ (He now <a class=\"external text\" href=\"http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/print/2010/12/david-and-solomon/draper-text\" rel=\"nofollow\">believes</a>, as <i>National Geographic</i> puts it, that David was \"a raggedy upstart akin to Pancho Villa.\") His \"Low Chronology\" seems to have been motivated by the attempt to disprove the early existence of the United Monarchy, and the weight of the evidence now contradicts the chronology (while still inconclusive on the matter of the United Monarchy). §REF§ Mazar (2005) §REF§ In general, it seems that many archaeologists treat the absence of evidence as evidence of absence—risky to do, considering that new finds are unearthed practically every month.<br>In short, every data point that is backed up with archaeology must be considered provisional, and new discoveries can totally upend our picture of what happened. As can new interpretations that correct erroneous early interpretations, a <a class=\"external text\" href=\"http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst140/MotelOfMysteries.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">constant danger</a> with motivated archaeologists.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 10, "name": "Galilee", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "35.303500000000", "latitude": "32.699600000000", "capital_city": "Nazareth", "nga_code": "IL", "fao_country": "Israel", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 61, "name": "Levant", "subregions_list": "Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 353, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Used for shields. Code inferred from Abbasid Caliphate§REF§Hugh N Kennedy. 2001. The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SGPPFNAZ/q/kennedy\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SGPPFNAZ/q/kennedy</a>§REF§ which occupied Yemen between 751-868 CE. The Sulayhids used African mercenaries§REF§(Stookey 1978, 66) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder.§REF§ and Central Sudanic Bornu horseback warriors often wore quilted armour and chainmail and a iron cap-helmet.§REF§Jacquelin A Blair. Nicholas Roumas. Fernando Martell advised by Jeffrey L Forgeng. 2011. The Progression of Arms and Armor from Ancient Greece to the European Renaissance across Eurasia and Africa. Worcester Polytechnic Institute.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 365, "name": "YeWarLd", "start_year": 1038, "end_year": 1174, "long_name": "Yemen - Era of Warlords", "new_name": "ye_warlords", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Era of the Warlords was a quasi-polity that existed in Tihama coastal plains between 1067 and 1091 CE, primarily characterized by a two-power tension between the Najahid dynasty and the Sulayhid dynasty. The Najahid dynasty was founded by two former slaves of the predated Ziyadid dynasty, while the Sulyahids occupied the highlands until their ruler ‘Ali bin Mahdi brought a denouement to the Najahid power in the mid-12th century. §REF§ (McLaughlin 2007, 159) Daniel McLaughlin. 2007. Yemen. Bradt Travel Guides Ltd. Chalfont St Peter §REF§ In 1086 CE, Mukarram of the Sulyahids instituted a new coinage called “Maliki Dinars.” §REF§ (van Donzel 1994, 427) E J van Donzel. 1994. Islamic Desk Reference. BRILL. Leiden. §REF§ When the Najahid rulers were driven out into refuge, many plotted their return to take back their territory in Tihama, but were defeated at the end. §REF§ (Margariti 2013, 216) Roxani Margariti. An Ocean of Islamds: Islands, Insularity, and Historiography of the Indian Ocean. Peter N Miller ed. 2013. The Sea: Thalassography and Historiography. University of Michigan Press. Ann Arbor. §REF§ <br>No population estimates could be found in the consulted literature; however, the polity territory was estimated to be between 250,000 and 350,000 square kilometers. §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 99) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. §REF§ <br>The settlement hierarchy was between three- and five-tiered with a capital followed by towns and villages. The administrative levels were between four and five, with the political organization headed by a king and queen and followed by court and provincial governments. §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 65-74) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 12, "name": "Yemeni Coastal Plain", "subregion": "Arabia", "longitude": "43.315739000000", "latitude": "14.850891000000", "capital_city": "Sanaa", "nga_code": "YE", "fao_country": "Yemen", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 44, "name": "Arabia", "subregions_list": "Arabian Peninsula", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 159, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " <i>Almost certainly could be coded present if there is evidence the polity used the shield. At this time it is unlikely the warriors went into battle completely unarmoured.</i>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 500, "name": "IrMElm2", "start_year": -1399, "end_year": -1200, "long_name": "Elam - Igihalkid Period", "new_name": "ir_elam_6", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Middle Elamite kingdom, about 250,000 square kilometers, was located in what is now Southwestern Iran. §REF§ (Liverani, 2014. 279) Liverani, Mario. The ancient Near East: history, society and economy. London: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2014 §REF§ The kingdom is commonly split into three phases: the first before 1400 BCE; the second, 1400-1200 BCE, which was characterised by intermarriage with the Kassites; and the third, 1200-1100 BCE, characterised by war with the Kassites.<br>The First Period lacks the evidence of the later periods, but can be seen to be a substantial state, where the kings held the title of king of Anshan and Susa, even if it is not clear how much control they exerted over Anshan. The kings of the First Period had local governors and diplomats, craft and cult organisation, and could wage war against the Babylonians. §REF§ Carter, E. and Stolper, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p. 32-34 §REF§ <br>The Second Period has a comparative wealth of evidence, mostly royal inscriptions from building or dedicatory texts. During this period, the empire expanded and many building works were undertaken, including the construction of the new city al-Untash Napirisha. This period also saw the Elamites becoming increasingly involved in Mesopotamian politics. There were many marriages between Elamite princes (the Igihalkids) and Kassite princesses. §REF§ Carter, E. and Stolper, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. Near Eastern Studies. Volume 25. Berkeley: University of California Press. p.37-38 §REF§ The \"Berlin letter\", an important text, names four marriages between Elamite princes and Kassite princesses. §REF§ Potts, D.T. 2012. The Elamites. In Daryaee, T. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 37 §REF§ <br>The Third Period involved military battles with Babylon, which had been annexed by Assyria. in 1158 BCE, the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte invaded Babylonia and overthrew the Kassite king Zababa-shuma-iddina, probably giving the throne to his son Kutir-Nahhunte. The Middle Elamite Kingdom ended when the Babylonian army, led by Nebuchadnezzar, defeated the last Middle Elamite king, Hutelutush-Inshushinak and seized Susa in revenge for taking their god and invading their kingdom. §REF§ Potts, D.T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.232-253 §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Kings of this period were commonly referred to by the title 'king of Susa and Anshan' in Akkadian and 'king of Anshan and Susa' in Elamite. It is a period characterised by this unity between the highlands, Anshan, and the lowlands, Susa. §REF§ Potts, D. T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.188 §REF§ A powerful bureaucracy had religious and secular influence in the government. §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ <br>The population for the entire empire is unknown, but the largest settlement is estimated at between 1,500-6,000 people during the early period, 2,750-11,000 people in 1300 BCE, and 5,000-20,000 in 1200 BCE.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }