Leather Cloth List
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{ "count": 354, "next": null, "previous": "https://seshatdata.com/api/wf/leathers/?ordering=description&page=35", "results": [ { "id": 115, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "absent", "polity": { "id": 112, "name": "InGaroL", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1956, "long_name": "Late A'chik", "new_name": "in_achik_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Garo Hills, located in Meghalaya in northeast India, have long been inhabited by the A’chik. The term 'Garo' is of unclear origin, but is believed to have originated with the neighbouring Boro people. §REF§ (Sangma 1995, 37) Sangma, Mihir N., and Milton S. Sangma. 1995. “The Garos: The Name, Meanings, and Its Origin.” In Hill Societies, Their Modernisation: A Study of North East with Special Reference to Garo Hills, 32-41. New Delhi: Omsons Publications. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M5IS3SBN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M5IS3SBN</a>. §REF§ The Garo people refer to themselves as the A'chik ('hill') or A'chik Manderang ('hill people'). §REF§ (Sangma 1995, 33) Sangma, Mihir N., and Milton S. Sangma. 1995. “The Garos: The Name, Meanings, and Its Origin.” In Hill Societies, Their Modernisation: A Study of North East with Special Reference to Garo Hills, 32-41. New Delhi: Omsons Publications. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M5IS3SBN\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M5IS3SBN</a>. §REF§ <br>It is unknown precisely when the A’chik settled in their present location, but it is believed that they migrated to the hills from Tibet. §REF§ (Roy 1999, 2) Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. “Culture Summary: Garo.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P</a>. §REF§ The A’chik had little contact with their neighbours before 1775, when local <i>zamindars</i> (Indian land-owning nobility) led expeditions into the Garo Hills. §REF§ (Roy 1999, 2) Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. “Culture Summary: Garo.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P</a>. §REF§ <br>1788 saw the first contact with the British, who began to occupy the district in 1867. §REF§ (Roy 1999, 2) Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. “Culture Summary: Garo.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P</a>. §REF§ Despite their initial resistance, the A’chik were overmatched by British firearms, and the British established full administrative control of the region around 1873. §REF§ (Majumdar 1978, 30) Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan. 1978. Culture Change in Two Garo Villages. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India, Govt. of India. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TZXMWMN5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TZXMWMN5</a>. §REF§ The region remained a part of British India until Indian independence in 1947.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the precolonial period, the A’chik lacked elaborate political organization. The most important social unit was the matrilineal clan, the <i>machong</i>. §REF§ (Roy 1999, 6) Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. “Culture Summary: Garo.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P</a>. §REF§ The chief (<i>nokma</i>) had relatively little power beyond religious functions and resolving minor disputes under the guidance of the village elders. §REF§ (Majumdar 1978, 22) Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan. 1978. Culture Change in Two Garo Villages. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India, Govt. of India. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TZXMWMN5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TZXMWMN5</a>. §REF§ <br>Once the region was under British control, executive offices were simply superimposed onto A’chik structures. The British created the office of <i>laskar</i>, with limited power over about ten villages. §REF§ (Marak 1997, 52) Marak, Kumie R. 1997. Traditions and Modernity in Matrilineal Tribal Society. New Delhi: Inter-India Publications. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CS3PXEIH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CS3PXEIH</a>. §REF§ The A’chik were still left to settle their own disputes through the nokma, but they gained the right to appeal the nokma's decisions to the court of laskars. §REF§ (Marak 1997, 52) Marak, Kumie R. 1997. Traditions and Modernity in Matrilineal Tribal Society. New Delhi: Inter-India Publications. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CS3PXEIH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CS3PXEIH</a>. §REF§ <br>Population estimates are unavailable for the precolonial period. The British colonial official and statistician W. W. Hunter estimated that the population of the Garo Hills was 80,000 in 1872. §REF§ (Kar 1995, 54) Kar, Biman. 1995. “Changing A’chik-Mande: Need for Further Research.” In Hill Societies, Their Modernisation: A Study of North East with Special Reference to Garo Hills, edited by Milton S. Sangma, 52-58. New Delhi: Omsons Publications. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/W7PJ27C6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/W7PJ27C6</a>. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-30T14:03:33.228031Z", "home_nga": { "id": 16, "name": "Garo Hills", "subregion": "Eastern India", "longitude": "90.518539010900", "latitude": "25.444444443900", "capital_city": "Tura", "nga_code": "ASM", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 37, "name": "Eastern India", "subregions_list": "Lower Ganges (Bangladesh) and eastern India (Assam)", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 5, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "AfKidar", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477, "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "new_name": "af_kidarite_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kidarite state in Central Asia (~ 388-477 CE) may have lasted less than 100 years, but its earliest phase under the suzerainty of the Sassanid Empire is not well known. §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 125) E. V. Zeimal. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ \"It has been suggested that they conquered K'ang-chu and Sogdiana in c. 300 but the literary sources have not yet been corroborated by the archaeological evidence.\" §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 124-125) E V Zeimal. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ <br>The most influential ruler of the Kidarites was perhaps king Kidara: narrative sources place him in the c420s CE but numismatists agree his rule began c390 CE. §REF§ (Grenet 2005) Frantz Grenet. 2005. KIDARITES. Iranicaonline. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kidarites §REF§ The Chinese chronicle Peo-Shih (Annals of the Wei Dynasty) say Kidara held \"vast territories to the north and south of the Hindu Kush\" and his most imporant city was near Peshawar, probably Purushapura, §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 126) E V Zeimal. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ the late capital of the Kushan Empire.<br>Much like the Kushan Empire little is known about how exactly they ruled their territories. The Kidarites founded new cities (Panjikent and Kushaniya), Kushaniya being a royal foundation §REF§ (Grenet 2005) Frantz Grenet. 2005. KIDARITES. Iranicaonline. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kidarites §REF§ that shows that the Kidarites attempted to draw some of their legitimacy from the preceding Kushan period. Zeimal (1996) concludes that \"It seems likely that the administrative and government structure created by the Kushans was left largely intact under the Kidarites.\" §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 132) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 8, "name": "Afghanistan", "subregions_list": "Afghanistan", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 274, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 77, "name": "PeCuzLF", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 200, "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Formative", "new_name": "pe_cuzco_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Formative period in the Cuzco valley (2200-500 BCE) marks the transition from small-scale semi-nomadic groups of hunter-gatherers to sedentary villages associated with ceramic production and agriculture. Traditionally, it has been subdivided into three periods. The Early Formative (2200-1500 BCE) corresponds to the beginning of ceramic production and quinoa cultivation and the establishment of large, permanent villages. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 39) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ During the Middle Formative (1500-500 BCE), Marcavalle ceramics appeared and villages grew, possibly leading to the beginnings of ranked village societies. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 40) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ The domestication of camelids was also under way. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 41) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ The Late Formative (500 BCE-200 CE) saw the emergence of a three-tiered settlement pattern in the Cuzco and Oropesa basins, dominated by the settlement of Wimpillay. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 44-45) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ This period is also known as Chanapata, in reference to a dominant ceramic style discovered in the 1940s. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 42) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ It is possible that other small chiefdoms existed in the region: a few early villages have been found near Raqchi in the Chit'apampa Basin, §REF§ (Covey 2006, 61) Alan R. Covey. 2006. <i>How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ and there may have been some small independent polities near Paruro and Cusichaca. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 46) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ In the Lucre Basin to the east of modern Cuzco, a small chiefdom may have centred around the site of Choquepukio. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 46) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The population of these early polities remains unknown, but over 80 archaeological sites dating to this period have been surveyed in the valley by archaeologist Brian Bauer. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 42) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ Some of these were identified as hamlets and small villages, with between a few dozen and a few hundred inhabitants. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 43) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ More research is needed in order to understand sociopolitical relations at the time, but Bauer has interpreted the Late Formative as the period in which chiefdoms begin to emerge. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 45) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ This process continued and solidified in the Early Intermediate Period.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 30, "name": "Cuzco", "subregion": "Andes", "longitude": "-72.067772000000", "latitude": "-13.477380000000", "capital_city": "Cuzco", "nga_code": "PE", "fao_country": "Peru", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 32, "name": "Andes", "subregions_list": "From Ecuador to Chile", "mac_region": { "id": 6, "name": "South America and Caribbean" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 276, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "PeWari*", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999, "long_name": "Wari Empire", "new_name": "pe_wari_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Following a period of regionalization known as the Early Intermediate Period, two polities came to dominate the Andes. Tiwanaku (Tihuanaco, Tihuanacu) extended from its core on the southern shore of Lake Titicaca to the highlands of western Bolivia, northern Chile and southern Peru. §REF§ (Stanish 2003, 290) Charles Stanish. 2003. <i>Ancient Titicaca: The Evolution of Complex Society in Southern Peru and Northern Bolivia</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Meanwhile, the Wari (Huari) polity may have controlled an area incorporating much of the Peruvian coast and highlands. §REF§ (Bergh 2012, xiv-xv) Susan Bergh. 2012. <i>Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ <br>These two spheres of influence appear to have been united by a religious belief focusing on the cult of a 'staff deity'. §REF§ (Cook 2012, 65) Anita G. Cook. 2012. 'The Coming of the Staff Deity', in <i>Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes</i>, edited by Susan Bergh, 103-21. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Cook 2001, 158) Anita G. Cook. 2001. 'Huari D-Shaped Structures, Sacrificial Offerings, and Divine Rulership', in <i>Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru</i>, edited by E. P. Benson and A. G. Cook, 137-63. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ This is manifest in the iconography of both polities, together forming the 'Middle Horizon', a period characterized by the substantial spread of uniform material culture across this large territory between the 7th and the 11th centuries CE. §REF§ (Isbell 2008, 731-73) William H. Isbell. 2008. 'Wari and Tiwanaku: International Identities in the Central Andean Middle Horizon', in <i>Handbook of South American Archaeology</i>, edited by H. Silverman and W. Isbell, 731-60. New York: Springer. §REF§ <br>The exact nature of the Wari phenomenon is debated. While some scholars are of the view that it was a centralized empire, others think it was a smaller state based in Ayacucho with small enclaves of power dispersed across the Andes. §REF§ (Covey et al. 2013, 538-52) Alan R. Covey, Brian S. Bauer, Véronique Bélisle and Lia Tsesmeli. 2013. 'Regional Perspectives on Wari State Influence in Cusco, Peru (c. AD 600-1000)'. <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> 32 (4): 538-52. §REF§ The empire hypothesis describes Wari as a 'mosaic of control': §REF§ (Schreiber 1992, 29) Katharina J. Schreiber. 1992. <i>Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. §REF§ regions with Wari architecture may have been under direct Wari domination while large cities that only exhibit Wari pottery and textiles may have been autonomous polities whose ruling class closely cooperated with the Ayacucho polity.<br>Pikillacta in the Cuzco Valley is one of the most prominent Wari-controlled sites outside of its core in Ayacucho. §REF§ (McEwan 2005, 157-58) Gordon F. McEwan. 2005. 'Conclusion: The Functions of Pikillacta' in <i>Pikillacta: The Wari Empire in Cuzco</i>, edited by Gordon F. McEwan 147-64. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press. §REF§ This planned settlement spreading over 47 ha follows a strictly enforced grid pattern regardless of the topography. §REF§ (Covey et al. 2013, 540) Alan R. Covey, Brian S. Bauer, Véronique Bélisle and Lia Tsesmeli. 2013. 'Regional Perspectives on Wari State Influence in Cusco, Peru (c. AD 600-1000)'. <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> 32 (4): 538-52. §REF§ The rectangular cells were interpreted variously as granaries, barracks or houses. §REF§ (McEwan and Couture 2005, 21-23) Gordon F. McEwan and Nicole Couture. 2005. 'Pikillacta and Its Architectural Typology', in <i>Pikillacta: The Wari Empire in Cuzco</i>, edited by Gordon F. McEwan, 11-28. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press. §REF§ However, later excavations revealed that the city was composed of several interconnected sites performing different functions: there were administrative, ceremonial, residential, and defensive components. §REF§ (McEwan 1991, 99) Gordon F. McEwan. 1991. 'Investigations at the Pikillacta site: A Provincial Huari Centre in the Valley of Cuzco', in <i>Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government</i>, edited by W. H. Isbell and G. F. McEwan, 93-120. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. §REF§ This settlement appears to have been left unfinished and abandoned sometime before 1000 CE. §REF§ (Glowacki 2005, 123) Mary Glowacki. 2005. 'Dating Pikillacta', in <i>Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government</i>, edited by W. H. Isbell and G. F. McEwan, 115-24. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. §REF§ Beyond Pikillacta, the spread of Wari in the Cuzco Valley is limited, and local polities still controlled the western half of the valley. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ <br>The capital of the Wari polity, also named 'Wari' or 'Huari', was more organically built: patios and galleries filled the empty spaces between compounds, and have been interpreted as elite residences and administrative buildings. §REF§ (Schreiber 2012, 36) Katharina Schreiber. 2012. 'The Rise of an Andean Empire', in <i>Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes</i>, edited by Susan Bergh, 31-46. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ D-shaped ceremonial spaces were common in the capital but rare in the provinces, §REF§ (McEwan and Williams 2012, 67) Gordon F. McEwan and Patrick Ryan Williams. 2012. 'The Wari Built Environment: Landscape and Architecture of Empire', in <i>Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes</i>, edited by Susan Bergh, 67-81. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ and may have hosted rituals and sacrifices, as suggested by the trophy heads found at Conchopata. §REF§ (Tung 2014, 246) Tiffiny A. Tung. 2014. 'Making Warriors, Making War: Violence and Militarism in the Wari Empire', in <i>Embattled Bodies, Embattled Places: War in Pre-Columbian America</i>, edited by A. K. Scherer and J. W. Verano, 229-58. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Library. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Estimating the population under Wari control is problematic. The capital Huari, situated in the Ayacucho valley, stretched over 200-300 ha and may have housed between 30,000 §REF§ (McEwan and Williams 2012, 67) Gordon F. McEwan and Patrick Ryan Williams. 2012. 'The Wari Built Environment: Landscape and Architecture of Empire', in <i>Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes</i>, edited by Susan Bergh, 67-81. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ and 70,000 people. §REF§ (Isbell et al. 1991, 99) William H. Isbell, Christine Brewster-Wray and Lynda E. Spickard. 1991. 'Architecture and Spatial Organization at Huari', in <i>Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government</i>, edited by W. H. Isbell and G. F. McEwan, 19-53. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. §REF§ Beyond Ayacucho, Wari architectural compounds only cover an area of a few hundred hectares; §REF§ (Covey et al. 2013, 538-52) Alan R. Covey, Brian S. Bauer, Véronique Bélisle and Lia Tsesmeli. 2013. 'Regional Perspectives on Wari State Influence in Cusco, Peru (c. AD 600-1000)'. <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> 32 (4): 538-52. §REF§ the total population under Wari control may have been limited to 100,000-500,000. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ <br>Proponents of the empire hypothesis hold the view that Wari controlled a territory of 320,000 square kilometres, extending from the core near Ayacucho to its provinces in the north (Moche) and to the south near Cerro Baul (Moquegua). §REF§ (Schreiber 2012, 39) Katharina Schreiber. 2012. 'The Rise of an Andean Empire', in <i>Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes</i>, edited by Susan Bergh, 31-46. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Other interpretations are more cautious; as Wari remains have only been found in the Ayacucho valley and small pockets of control beyond the core, its total territory was in no way comparable to that of the later Inca Empire and may have covered 10,000-50,000 hectares at most. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ <br>What is known from archaeological surveys, however, is that four or five tiers of settlement existed: the capital may have controlled colonies situated around the major administrative centres of Pikillacta, Viracochapampa and Conchopata (40-50 ha). §REF§ (McEwan 2005, 1) Gordon F. McEwan. 2005. 'Introduction: Pikillacta and the Wari Empire', in <i>Pikillacta: The Wari Empire in Cuzco</i>, edited by Gordon F. McEwan, 1-7. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press. §REF§ On the third tier, towns such as Huaro, §REF§ (Glowacki 2012, 190) Mary Glowacki. 2012. 'Imperialismo en el Horizonte Medio: Una reevaluación del paradigma clásico, Cuzco, Perú'. <i>Boletín de Arqueología PUCP</i> 16: 189-207. §REF§ Batan Orqo, Cerro Baul, §REF§ (Moseley et al. 1991, 132) Michael E. Moseley, Robert A. Feldman, Paul S. Goldstein and Luis Watanabe. 1991. 'Colonies and Conquest: Tihuanaco and Huari in Moquegua', in <i>Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government</i>, edited by W. H. Isbell and G. F. McEwan, 121-40. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. §REF§ Jincamocco or Wari Willka may have been secondary centres (c. 10 hectares). Finally, villages and hamlets would have produced resources for these larger cities. §REF§ (Covey et al. 2013, 543) Alan R. Covey, Brian S. Bauer, Véronique Bélisle and Lia Tsesmeli. 2013. 'Regional Perspectives on Wari State Influence in Cusco, Peru (c. AD 600-1000)'. <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> 32 (4): 538-52. §REF§ <br>In terms of political organisation, the Wari king may have held influence over client rulers or Wari nobles: royal tombs with Wari paraphernalia have been found at Huarmey in coastal Peru. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ The Wari may have also had a military hierarchy, as suggested by the ceramic depictions of warriors with distinctive face paint, arms, dress, and shield motifs. §REF§ (Arkush 2006, 502) Elizabeth Arkush. 2006. 'Collapse, Conflict, Conquest: The Transformation of Warfare in the Late Prehispanic Andean Highlands', in <i>The Archaeology of Warfare: Prehistories of Raiding and Conquest</i>, edited by E. Arkush and M. Allen, 286-335. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press. §REF§ <br>The Wari left their stamp on technology and infrastructure in the Andes. Some archaeologists see them as the predecessors of the Incas, laying the foundations for the Inca road system; §REF§ (D'Altroy and Schreiber 2004, 269) Terence N. D'Altroy and Katherine Schreiber. 2004. 'Andean Empires', in <i>Andean Archaeology</i>, edited by H. Silverman, 255‒79. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ however, this hypothesis is disputed. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 30, "name": "Cuzco", "subregion": "Andes", "longitude": "-72.067772000000", "latitude": "-13.477380000000", "capital_city": "Cuzco", "nga_code": "PE", "fao_country": "Peru", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 32, "name": "Andes", "subregions_list": "From Ecuador to Chile", "mac_region": { "id": 6, "name": "South America and Caribbean" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }