Leather Cloth List
A viewset for viewing and editing Leather Cloth.
GET /api/wf/leathers/?ordering=-private_comment&page=2
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This was the case of the king, if we can believe Zhou Daguan, who in the thirteenth century AD indicates that the sovereign \"had his body class in iron, so that even knives and arrows, striking his body, could not harm him\".'§REF§(Jacq-Hergoualc'h and Smithies 2007, pp. 20-21)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "KhAngkE", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100, "long_name": "Early Angkor", "new_name": "kh_angkor_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Khmer Empire was established in 802 CE, when a ruler known as Jayavarman II had himself proclaimed 'universal monarch' in a ceremony performed by Sanskrit-speaking priests on a mountain close to the Tonlé Sap lake. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ By bringing previously independent polities under their control, Jayavarman II and his successors expanded their realm across mainland Southeast Asia, including parts of modern-day Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in <i>The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies</i>, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Our Early Angkor period runs from 802 to 1100 CE, after which a new dynasty ‒ named after their place of origin, Mahidharapura ‒ came to power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 107-09) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Numerous small kingdoms formed in the lower Mekong Basin in the mid-1st millennium CE, but until the conquests of Jayavarman II, most failed to outlive their founders. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Jayavarman II managed to unify previously warring local lords under his aegis, turning independent polities into provinces and laying the foundations for over six centuries of Khmer rule centred on the Siem Reap plain. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Like many polities in Southeast Asia at the turn of the 1st millennium CE, the new kingdom, with its growing urban centre on the north shore of the Tonlé Sap, borrowed from Indian religious practices, concepts of divine kingship, language, writing and iconography in order to legitimize royal power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 8) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Kulke 1986, 14-15) Hermann Kulke. 1986. 'The Early and the Imperial Kingdom in Southeast Asian History', in <i>Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries</i>, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 1-22. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§ Its kings patronized both Hindu and Buddhist institutions, building monasteries and sanctuaries dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and the Buddha that doubled as outposts of royal power throughout the realm. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 160) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lieberman 2003, 33) Victor Lieberman. 2003. <i>Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800‒1830, Vol. 1: Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</i> §REF§ However, in this early period, it was the Hindu concepts that were most dominant: the ruler was exalted as a <i>devaraja</i> (god-king) and symbolically linked to Shiva. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 15) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100‒1500</i>. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ Temples built in the kingdom before 1100 CE include Preah Ko, Bakheng, Pre Rup and Baphuon. §REF§ (Higham 2001, xiv) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>The riches of Angkor ultimately flowed from wet-rice agriculture, §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and an institutionalized hierarchy of officials developed to funnel surplus rice produced in villages, as well as other goods like honey, spices, cloth and gold, to the royal centre. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Angkor kings also used corvée labour to build temples, irrigation infrastructure and other public works. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Higham 2014, 368-70) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ <br>The Khmer Empire is famous for its sprawling but low-density urban sites. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in <i>The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies</i>, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It has been claimed that Angkor itself was the 'largest settlement complex of the preindustrial world': §REF§ (Evans et al. 2013, 12595) Damian H. Evans, Roland J. Fletcher, Christophe Pottier, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, Dominique Soutif, Boun Suy Tan, Sokrithy Im, Darith Ea, Tina Tin, Samnang Kim, Christopher Cromarty, Stéphane De Greef, Kasper Hanus, Pierre Bâty, Robert Kuszinger, Ichita Shimoda, and Glenn Boornazian. 2013. 'Uncovering Archaeological Landscapes at Angkor Using Lidar'. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> 110 (31): 12595-600. §REF§ at its peak in the 12th century (after this period) it covered 1000 square kilometres and may have housed over 750,000 people. §REF§ (Penny et al. 2014, 1) Dan Penny, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, David Tang, and Stéphane De Greef. 2014. 'The Environmental Impact of Cambodia's Ancient City of Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen)'. <i>PLoS ONE</i> 9 (1): e84252. §REF§ However, the total population of the empire in this period is still unclear.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 217, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " 'From all this, we can bear in mind that Khmer breastplates, as we have described them, possibly used the materials cited by Bezacier: buffalo skins, tree bark, and bronze, even if this metal was replaced with iron at the period we are discussing, if indeed metal was used in making this armour. This was the case of the king, if we can believe Zhou Daguan, who in the thirteenth century AD indicates that the sovereign \"had his body class in iron, so that even knives and arrows, striking his body, could not harm him\".'§REF§(Jacq-Hergoualc'h and Smithies 2007, pp. 20-21)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "KhAngkL", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432, "long_name": "Late Angkor", "new_name": "kh_angkor_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Khmer Empire was established in 802 CE, when a ruler known as Jayavarman II had himself proclaimed a 'universal monarch' in a ceremony performed by Sanskrit-speaking priests on a mountain close to the Tonlé Sap lake. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ By bringing previously independent polities under their control, Jayavarman II and his successors expanded their realm across mainland Southeast Asia, including parts of modern-day Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in <i>The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies</i>, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Our Late Angkor period begins with the death of King Jayavarman VII around 1200 CE. §REF§ (Vickery 1986, 103) Michael Vickery. 1986. 'Some Remarks on Early State Formation in Cambodia', in <i>Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries</i>, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 95-115. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§ In contrast to the burgeoning growth of the Khmer Empire during the Classic period, the Late Angkor period was characterized by political and economic decline, culminating in the sack of the city of Angkor by the Thai Kingdom of Ayutthaya in 1431. §REF§ (Stark 2006, 146, 164) Miriam T. Stark. 2006. 'From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 144-67. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ <br>The reign of Jayavarman VII marked the high point of Angkorean monument-building, and subsequent rulers did not carry out major construction projects at the ancient capital. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 390) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan visited Angkor in the late 13th century and saw temples capped in gold and copper, sumptuous religious festivals, thousands of slaves and servants, and a lively trade in Chinese goods. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 390-91) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ §REF§ (Higham 2001, 135-56) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ However, this grandeur concealed the fundamental instability of the state, and the Khmer administrative system with its centre at Angkor eventually disintegrated in the mid-15th century CE. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 391) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ Warfare became 'endemic', §REF§ (Higham 2001, 140) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ and after the Ayyuthaya attacks in 1431, the rulers of Angkor moved to south-eastern Cambodia and founded a new capital at Phnom Penh. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 391) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ §REF§ (Buckley et al. 2010, 6750) Brendan M. Buckley, Kevin J. Anchukaitisa, Daniel Penny, Roland Fletcher, Edward R. Cook, Masaki Sano, Le Canh Nam, Aroonrut Wichienkeeo, Ton That Minh and Truong Mai Hong. 2010. 'Climate as a Contributing Factor in the Demise of Angkor, Cambodia'. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> 107 (15): 6748-51. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Numerous small kingdoms formed in the lower Mekong Basin in the mid-1st millennium CE, but until the conquests of Jayavarman II, most failed to outlive their founders. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Jayavarman II managed to unify previously warring local lords under his aegis, turning independent polities into provinces and laying the foundations for over six centuries of Khmer rule centred on the Siem Reap plain. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Like many polities in Southeast Asia at the turn of the 1st millennium CE, the new kingdom, with its growing urban centre on the north shore of the Tonlé Sap, borrowed from Indian religious practices, concepts of divine kingship, language, writing and iconography in order to legitimize royal power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 8) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Kulke 1986, 14-15) Hermann Kulke. 1986. 'The Early and the Imperial Kingdom in Southeast Asian History', in <i>Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries</i>, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 1-22. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§ Its kings patronized both Hindu and Buddhist institutions, building monasteries and sanctuaries dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and the Buddha that doubled as outposts of royal power throughout the realm. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 160) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lieberman 2003, 33) Victor Lieberman. 2003. <i>Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800‒1830, Vol. 1: Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</i> §REF§ <br>However, the Late Angkor period saw a decline in the importance of the Hindu <i>devaraja</i> (god-king) cult, while Theravada Buddhism gained an increasingly stronger foothold among both the people and their rulers. §REF§ (Hall 2011, 197) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ §REF§ (Stark 2006, 164) Miriam T. Stark. 2006. 'From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 144-67. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ This is reflected in the scarcity of Sanskrit inscriptions referencing Hindu gods ‒ the last known Angkor inscription to use this language dates to 1327 §REF§ (Higham 2001, 140) Charles Higham. 2001. <i>The Civilization of Angkor</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ ‒ and the increasing importance of Pali scriptures. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 162-63) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ While some scholars suggest that this religious shift contributed to the loosening of centralized Khmer power, §REF§ (Higham 2014, 391) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ the causes for imperial decline during this period remain a topic of intense scholarly debate. §REF§ (Evans 2016, 165) Damian Evans. 2016. 'Airborne Laser Scanning as a Method for Exploring Long-Term Socio-Ecological Dynamics in Cambodia'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Science</i> 74: 164-75. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2016.05.009. §REF§ <br>The riches of Angkor at the height of its power had always flowed from wet-rice agriculture, §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and an institutionalized hierarchy of officials developed to funnel surplus rice produced in villages, as well as other goods like honey, spices, cloth and gold, to the royal centre. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Angkor kings also used corvée labour to build temples, irrigation infrastructure and other public works. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Higham 2014, 368-70) Charles Higham. 2014. <i>Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor</i>. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ In this period, however, rice agriculture decreased in importance in favour of trade and commerce, potentially undermining the traditional power base of the Angkor kings. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 163) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Khmer Empire is famous for its sprawling but low-density urban sites. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in <i>The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies</i>, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It has been claimed that Angkor itself was the 'largest settlement complex of the preindustrial world': §REF§ (Evans et al. 2013, 12595) Damian H. Evans, Roland J. Fletcher, Christophe Pottier, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, Dominique Soutif, Boun Suy Tan, Sokrithy Im, Darith Ea, Tina Tin, Samnang Kim, Christopher Cromarty, Stéphane De Greef, Kasper Hanus, Pierre Bâty, Robert Kuszinger, Ichita Shimoda, and Glenn Boornazian. 2013. 'Uncovering Archaeological Landscapes at Angkor Using Lidar'. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> 110 (31): 12595-600. §REF§ at its peak in the 12th century (before this period) it covered 1000 square kilometres and may have housed over 750,000 people. §REF§ (Penny et al. 2014, 1) Dan Penny, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, David Tang, and Stéphane De Greef. 2014. 'The Environmental Impact of Cambodia's Ancient City of Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen)'. <i>PLoS ONE</i> 9 (1): e84252. §REF§ However, the total population of the empire in this period is still unclear.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 218, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " 'From all this, we can bear in mind that Khmer breastplates, as we have described them, possibly used the materials cited by Bezacier: buffalo skins, tree bark, and bronze, even if this metal was replaced with iron at the period we are discussing, if indeed metal was used in making this armour. This was the case of the king, if we can believe Zhou Daguan, who in the thirteenth century AD indicates that the sovereign \"had his body class in iron, so that even knives and arrows, striking his body, could not harm him\".'§REF§(Jacq-Hergoualc'h and Smithies 2007, pp. 20-21)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "KhCambd", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594, "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "new_name": "kh_khmer_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "This polity covers the post-Angkor period of Cambodia's history from the early 15th to the end of the 16th century CE. In 1432, the magnificent city of Angkor was sacked by the forces of King Trailok ‒ of the increasingly powerful Thai Kingdom of Ayutthaya ‒ who carried off the Khmer royal regalia as a symbol of their victory. §REF§ (Stark 2006, 146, 164) Miriam T. Stark. 2006. 'From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 144-67. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Hall 2011, 233) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ A Khmer royal presence continued at Angkor in reduced form until around 1504, when the rulers retreated to a site near Phnom Penh on the Mekong River, southeast of Tonlé Sap Lake. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 402-59) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, Thai strength in the region continued to grow at the expense of the Khmer court, and in 1594 the then-capital Lovek was also attacked by the Thais, forcing the Cambodian king to flee to Laos. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 210) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ <br>Due to the Angkor kings' waning fortunes and endemic warfare with Ayutthaya, §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 421) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ it is difficult to identify the 'peak' of this polity. Indeed, the post-Angkor period is sometimes referred to somewhat dismissively as the 'Middle Period' of Cambodian history, §REF§ (Thompson 1997, 22) Ashley Thompson. 1997. 'Changing Perspectives: Cambodia after Angkor', in <i>Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory</i>, edited by Helen I. Jessop and Thierry Zephir, 22-32. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art. §REF§ but it should be noted that this term tends to also encompass the span of time between 1594 and the establishment of the French Protectorate in 1863. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 195) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Although centralized Khmer power was much weaker than in former centuries, and very few inscriptions survive to throw light on political organization, §REF§ (Thompson 1997, 22-23) Ashley Thompson. 1997. 'Changing Perspectives: Cambodia after Angkor', in <i>Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory</i>, edited by Helen I. Jessop and Thierry Zephir, 22-32. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art. §REF§ Khmer royals did still rise up periodically to assert their authority. For instance, historical accounts indicate that a king called Ang Chan reconquered Angkor in the 16th century and built a golden palace. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Meanwhile, the new capital on the lower Mekong was international in outlook, with quarters for Malay, Chinese and Japanese traders, §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ and some post-Classic Khmer kings had Japanese and Portuguese guards in their entourage. §REF§ (Jacq-Hergoualc'h and Smithies 2007, 98) M. Jacq-Hergoualc'h and M. Smithies. 2007. <i>The Armies of Angkor</i>. Bangkok: Orchid Press. §REF§ <br>More generally, this period was characterized by increasing commercial, religious and political connections within mainland Southeast Asia and greater integration into global trade networks, §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 411-12) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ especially after the arrival of the Portuguese in 1511. §REF§ (Hall 2011, 35-36) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ Wars between mainland Southeast Asian rulers did not preclude the development of a common, 'hybrid' culture among the wider population. §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 411-12) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Likewise, one reason for the relocation of the Khmer capital (in addition to Thai attacks and drought coupled with 'intense monsoons') §REF§ (Buckley et al. 2010, 6748) Brendan M. Buckley, Kevin J. Anchukaitisa, Daniel Penny, Roland Fletcher, Edward R. Cook, Masaki Sano, Le Canh Nam, Aroonrut Wichienkeeo, Ton That Minh and Truong Mai Hong. 2010. 'Climate as a Contributing Factor in the Demise of Angkor, Cambodia'. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> 107 (15): 6748-51. §REF§ was likely 'a desire for greater participation in seaborne trade'. §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 410) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 220, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Zhou Daguan mentions that in the 13th century the Angkorians did not use the hide of cow to make items,§REF§(Zhou Daguan 2007, p. 73)§REF§ which may be connected to religious ideas. If that is so, it is likely that leather items were not produced as far back as Funan, when the Indian religions were introduced. Cloth, on the other hand, is used by the Angkorian infantry in the bas-reliefs. §REF§(Jacq-Hergoualc'h 2007, p. 88)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "absent", "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "KhFunaE", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540, "long_name": "Funan I", "new_name": "kh_funan_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "'Funan' is the name the Chinese gave to the polity (or cluster of polities) that, between the 3rd and the 7th centuries CE, ruled over much of the southern portion of mainland Southeast Asia ‒ including territory that is today southern Vietnam, Thailand, and Myanmar, as well as all of Cambodia. §REF§ (West 2009, 222) Barbara West. 2009. <i>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ Most likely, what we now know as Funan emerged from Iron Age settlements around the Mekong Delta and the banks of the Mekong river. §REF§ (O'Reilly 2007, 91, 97) Dougald J. W. O'Reilly. 2007. <i>Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham: AltaMira Press. §REF§ The best known of these settlements is the archaeological site of Oc Èo ‒ hence the name 'culture of Oc Èo' to describe mainland Southeast Asian culture at this time. §REF§ (Ooi 2004, 6-7) Keat Gin Ooi. 2004. 'Introduction', in <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor</i>, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. §REF§ <br>Because it is difficult to pinpoint precisely when Funan was founded, here we use 225 CE as our start date. According to written records, this was the year in which the first Funanese embassy visited the Southern Chinese kingdom of Wu. §REF§ (Pelliot 1903, 303) Paul Pelliot. 1903. 'Le Fou-Nan'. <i>Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient</i> 3: 248-303. §REF§ We selected 539 CE as our end date, corresponding to the year King Rudravarman offered the gift of a live rhinoceros to the emperor at Beijing. This is the last time a Funanese ruler is mentioned in any existing records, and indeed it seems that Funan entered a period of gradual decline around this time, until it was supplanted by the Northern Cambodian state of Chenla or Zhenla in the 7th century. §REF§ (Tully 2005, 13) John Tully. 2005. <i>A Short History of Cambodia: From Empire to Survival</i>. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. §REF§ Chenla is the older spelling, the modern romanization of the Chinese character is Zhenla. §REF§ (Miksic, John. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email) §REF§ <br>Funan was rather prosperous, due to its privileged position at the crossroads of important trade routes that linked with India and China. Sources suggest that it reached its peak either in the mid-3rd century (when it extended its influence into Malaysia) §REF§ (Gin 2004, 11) Ooi Keat Gin. 2004. 'Introduction', in <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor</i>, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. §REF§ or between the end of the 5th and the beginning of the 6th century (when it was ruled by King Kaundinya Jayavarman and reached its maximum territorial extent, as well as the zenith of its political and economic power). §REF§ (West 2009, 223-24) Barbara West. 2009. <i>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It is not entirely clear whether Funan was a unitary state, as suggested by Chinese records, or a cluster of competing centres, or indeed the most powerful out of many such polities. §REF§ (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, 73) Ian Mabbett and David Chandler. 1995. <i>The Khmers</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ The highest political authority was probably something like a Mon-Khmer <i>poñ</i>, that is, a settlement chief. There may have been a loose hierarchy of poñ, possibly based on wealth and political influence, with the wealthiest and most powerful poñ viewed as 'kings' by the Chinese. §REF§ (Vickery 1998, 19-20) Michael Vickery. 1998. <i>Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries</i>. Chicago: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for Funan could be found in the literature, as work continues to locate and study settlements from this period. However, it is worth noting that the site of Oc Èo may have covered 450 hectares, with a possible population of many thousands of people. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 65) Michael Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. London: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 221, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Zhou Daguan mentions that in the 13th century the Angkorians did not use the hide of cow to make items,§REF§(Zhou Daguan 2007, p. 73)§REF§ which may be connected to religious ideas. If that is so, it is likely that leather items were not produced as far back as Funan, when the Indian religions were introduced. Cloth, on the other hand, is used by the Angkorian infantry in the bas-reliefs. §REF§(Jacq-Hergoualc'h 2007, p. 88)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "absent", "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "KhFunaL", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640, "long_name": "Funan II", "new_name": "kh_funan_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "'Funan' is the name the Chinese gave to the polity (or cluster of polities) that, between the 3rd and the 7th centuries CE, ruled over much of the southern portion of mainland Southeast Asia ‒ including territory that is today southern Vietnam, Thailand, and Myanmar, as well as all of Cambodia. §REF§ (West 2009, 222) Barbara West. 2009. <i>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ Most likely, what we now know as Funan emerged from Iron Age settlements around the Mekong Delta and the banks of the Mekong river. §REF§ (O'Reilly 2007, 91, 97) Dougald J. W. O'Reilly. 2007. <i>Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham: AltaMira Press. §REF§ The best known of these settlements is the archaeological site of Oc Èo ‒ hence the name 'culture of Oc Èo' to describe mainland Southeast Asian culture at this time. §REF§ (Gin 2004, 6-7) Ooi Keat Gin. 2004. 'Introduction', in <i>Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor</i>, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. §REF§ <br>Our Late Funan period spans the century between 540 (the year following the final mention of a Funanese ruler in the Chinese records) §REF§ (Tully 2005, 13) John Tully. 2005. <i>A Short History of Cambodia: From Empire to Survival</i>. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. §REF§ and 640 CE (a decade or so before the Chinese received embassies from a number of polities subjugated by the Northern Cambodian polity of Chenla). §REF§ (Hall 2010, 60-61) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ This period was one of decline and dissolution, due in large part to significant changes in international trade networks and the nautical technologies on which these trade networks relied. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 60-61) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It is not entirely clear whether Funan was a unitary state, as suggested by Chinese records, or a cluster of competing centres, or indeed the most powerful out of many such polities. §REF§ (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, 73) Ian Mabbett and David Chandler. 1995. <i>The Khmers</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ The highest political authority was probably something like a Mon-Khmer <i>poñ</i>, that is, a settlement chief. There may have been a loose hierarchy of poñ, possibly based on wealth and political influence, with the wealthiest and most powerful poñ viewed as 'kings' by the Chinese. §REF§ (Vickery 1998, 19-20) Michael Vickery. 1998. <i>Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries</i>. Chicago: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for Funan could be found in the literature, as work continues to locate and study settlements from this period. However, Chinese records state that, in the early 7th century, Funan included 30 settlements with about 1,000 households each. §REF§ (Miksic 2007, 125) John N. Miksic. 2007. <i>Historical Dictionary of Ancient Southeast Asia</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 222, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Vedic sources mention charioteer warrior gods with helmet of bull skin or metal.§REF§(Kuz'mina 2007, 137) Elena Efimovna Kuzʹmina. 2007. The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. J P Mallory ed. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ Judging from contemporary texts from Mesopotamia chariot warriors (currently not confirmed by archaeology) typically required \"leather coats of mail (sometimes with bronze) for horses\".§REF§(Kuz'mina 2007, 136) Elena Efimovna Kuzʹmina. 2007. The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. J P Mallory ed. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 463, "name": "KzAndro", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1200, "long_name": "Andronovo", "new_name": "kz_andronovo", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Andronovo culture, named for the village where the first archaeological remains identified as belonging to the culture were discovered, is a blanket term for the groups of people who inhabited the Kazakh steppe between 1800 and 1200 BCE. §REF§ (Cunliffe 2015, 142) Cunliffe, Barry. 2015. By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AF5PABXA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AF5PABXA</a>. §REF§ Although these people were dispersed throughout the steppe, there is evidence that communities were in communication with each other. Similar subsistence strategies - sheep and cattle herding combined with small-scale arable farming - were employed and evidence of a shared pottery style has been found. There was also a tradition of metallurgy that included the mining and use of copper, tin and gold and the manufacture of bronze, which was exchanged within interregional trade networks. §REF§ (Masson 1992, 349-350) Masson, V. M. 1992. “The Decline of the Bronze Age Civilization and Movements of the Tribes.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol I: The Dawn of Civilization: Earliest Times to 700 B.C., edited by A. H. Dani and V. M. Masson, 337-56. Paris: UNESCO. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IKGC9NGJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IKGC9NGJ</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Cunliffe 2015, 142) Cunliffe, Barry. 2015. By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AF5PABXA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AF5PABXA</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Little is known about the social or political organization of Andronovo communities. Settlements were small in scale, comprising around 10 to 40 houses with between 50 and 250 inhabitants per settlement. §REF§ (Cunliffe 2015, 142) Cunliffe, Barry. 2015. By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AF5PABXA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AF5PABXA</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 224, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Present in Egypt at this time - the regime in the Morocco probably used weapons similar to those of its neighbours. <i>We could also check - as yet unconsulted - references for Christians in contemporary Iberia who may have been used as mercenaries.</i>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "MaSaadi", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659, "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "new_name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "This polity represents the period in which Morocco was ruled by the Saadi dynasty. Although the dynasty itself was founded in 1511 CE, we date the beginning of the polity to 1554, when the Saadis took Fez from their dynastic rivals, the Wattasids, and united Morocco under their rule. As for the polity's end, it seems most appropriate to date it to 1659, the year the last Saadi monarch was assassinated. Between 1554 and 1591, the boundaries of the Saadi Sultanate coincided with those of modern-day Morocco. Between 1591 and 1618, the Saadi also ruled over the Niger Inland Delta, though their control over this area seems to have been nominal. After the death of Sultan Ahmad Al-Mansur in 1603, the polity entered a period of instability that ultimately led to the loss of their Niger colony. §REF§ (El Fasi 1992, 200-32) M. El Fasi. 1992. 'Morocco'. In <i>General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 200-32. London: Heinemann. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the 16th and 17th centuries CE, the Saadis ruled through an Ottoman-style hierarchical regime. §REF§ (García-Arenal 2009, 57-58) Mercedes García-Arenal. 2009. <i>Ahmad Al-Mansur: The Beginnings of Modern Morocco</i>. Oxford: OneWorld. §REF§ Atop this hierarchy stood the sultan, followed by the wazir or vizier, usually the crown prince. Then came the sultan's council, headed by the First Secretary, who fulfilled the roles of secretary of state, majordomo and treasurer. The vice-vizier was in charge of the army and the <i>qadi al-qudat</i> (chief religious judge) headed the judiciary and appointed regional qadis.<br>The Saadi Sultanate is likely to have had a population of no more than 3 million at its peak. This is based on the earliest available population estimate for Morocco, which dates to the 20th century. According to García-Arenal, '[t]he figure can hardly have been higher in the late sixteenth century or during the seventeenth, given that the country was subject to regular and devastating epidemics of plague'. §REF§ (García-Arenal 2009, 41) Mercedes García-Arenal. 2009. <i>Ahmad Al-Mansur: The Beginnings of Modern Morocco</i>. Oxford: OneWorld. §REF§ However, it is worth noting that this estimate does not take into account the population of the Niger Inland Delta.<br><br/><br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 225, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"Armour was apparently little used in the Western Sudan, though the Mossi cavalry for protective purposes assumed as much clothing as possible and provided leather and copper shields for the vulnerable parts of their mounts.\"§REF§(Smith 1989, 78) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.§REF§ \"In the late sixteenth century the Wolof cavalry were described as wearing a form of armour made from twisted cotton cloth which was resistant to arrows and spear thrusts.\"§REF§(Smith 1989, 78) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.§REF§ Padded clothing.§REF§(Smith 1989, 64) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "MlBaman", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861, "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "new_name": "ml_bamana_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Bamana Kingdom was founded in 1712 by Biton Kulibali §REF§ (Brett-Smith 2002, 940) Sarah C. Brett-Smith. 2002. 'Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art'. <i>American Anthropologist</i> 104 (3): 939-52. §REF§ and became part of the Tukulor (or Toucouleur) empire in 1861, when El Hajj Umar Tall seized the capital, Segu. §REF§ (Oloruntimehin 1972, 141) B. Olofunmilayo Oloruntimehin. 1972. The Segu Tukulor Empire. London: Longman. §REF§ This polity derives its name from its dominant ethnic group, §REF§ (Brett-Smith 2002, 939-952) Sarah C. Brett-Smith. 2002. 'Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art'. American Anthropologist 104(3): 939-952. §REF§ and because an alternative name for this group is 'Bambara', some sources will refer to the 'Bambara kingdom'. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 329-338) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta' in \"General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries\", edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot. London: Heinemann. §REF§ Because this was not the only Bambara kingdom at the time, it is often known as the Bambara Kingdom of Segu, from the name of its capital. French spellings of some of these names are also commonly found in the literature ‒ for example, Kulibali is sometimes spelled Coulibaly and Segu is sometimes spelled Segou. §REF§ (Brett-Smith 2002, 940) Sarah C. Brett-Smith. 2002. 'Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art'. <i>American Anthropologist</i> 104(3): 939-52. §REF§ <br>The kingdom was located in the Niger Bend, in West Africa. Between 1725 and 1751, under Biton's leadership, the Bamana of Segu conquered the whole of Bamana territory (including the Beledugu region, Jenne, and Timbuktu), and took Niani, the capital of the Mali Empire. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 333) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in <i>General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ After a series of weak successors, Ngolo Diarra (1766‒1790) strengthened the kingdom's hold over Timbuktu and Macina and conquered part of Dogon country. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 333-34) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in <i>General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ The Bamana Kingdom reached its greatest size under the rule of Monson Diarra (1792‒1808), who extended Segu power from San to Timbuktu, and from the Land of the Dogons to Kaarta. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 334) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in <i>General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ <br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The Bamana kingdom was ruled by single leader, known as the <i>faama</i>, who also led the army and was advised by an assembly of 40 men, including warriors and holy men. This assembly was based on a pre-existing Bamana institution known as <i>fla-n-ton</i> or <i>ton</i>, that is, an association of young men who had undergone circumcision together. With exceptions like Biton Kulibali and Ngolo Diarra, it seems that most <i>faama</i> were weak and ineffectual, at the mercy of the assembly. Stronger rulers, however, were able to govern with few constraints. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 333-34) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in <i>General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ <br>It is also worth noting that slavery was an important institution in the Bamana kingdom: the trade in slaves for guns and horses lay at the heart of the power of this nascent 'warrior-state'. §REF§ (Brett-Smith 2002, 941) Sarah C. Brett-Smith. 2002. 'Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art'. <i>American Anthropologist</i> 104 (3): 939-52. §REF§ <br>No official population estimates could be found for the Bamana Kingdom. However, the kingdom covered about half the territory of modern Mali, Guinea and Senegal, and the total population of these three countries in 1960 was around 12 million. §REF§ (World Bank 2016) World Bank, World DataBank. 2016. 'Mali: Population, total' [dataset]. Retrieved from <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=ML&view=chart\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=ML&view=chart</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (World Bank 2016) World Bank, World DataBank. 2016. 'Guinea: Population, total' [dataset]. Retrieved from <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=1960&locations=GN&start=1960&view=chart\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=1960&locations=GN&start=1960&view=chart</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (World Bank 2016) World Bank, World DataBank. 2016. 'Senegal: Population, total' [dataset]. Retrieved from <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=1960&locations=SN&start=1960&view=chart\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=1960&locations=SN&start=1960&view=chart</a>. §REF§ No reference could be found to a population crash between 1800 and 1960, but demographic growth was probably slower in the 19th century than in the 20th century. The population of the Bamana Kingdom in 1800 may have numbered three or four million people.<br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 231, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"The Tuaregs wore puffed trousers, a tunic, a turban, and a litham.\"§REF§(Diop 1987, 118) Diop, Cheikh Anta. Salemson, Harold trans. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa. Lawrence Hill Books. Chicago.§REF§ 1000-1650 CE period: \"body armor was rare. Among the cavalry empires of the Sahel and sudan, quilted horse and body armor were common but plate was rarely used.\"§REF§(Nolan 2006, 27) Cathal J Nolan. 2006. The Age of Wars of Religion, 1000-1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization. Volume 1 A - K. Greenwood Press. Westport.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "MlMali*", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410, "long_name": "Mali Empire", "new_name": "ml_mali_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After the gradual decline of the Ghana Empire, the power vacuum left in the Sudanese region was filled with several smaller successor states, including the Sosso Kingdom. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 33) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ In the early 13th century CE, several Malinke chiefdoms from the Upper Niger region united against the Sosso and slowly aggregated into what would become the Mali Empire. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 31) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ This polity, also known as the Mandingo Empire, §REF§ (Diop 1987, 93) Cheikh Anta Diop. 1987. <i>Precolonial Black Africa</i>, translated by Harold Salemson. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. §REF§ was the largest of the West African empires, and flourished from the early 13th to the late 14th/early 15th century, at which point it started to decline. §REF§ (MacDonald et al. 2011, 52) K. C. MacDonald, S. Camara, S. Canós, N. Gestrich, and D. Keita. 2011. 'Sorotomo: A Forgotten Malian Capital?' <i>Archaeology International</i> 13: 52-64. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://doi.org/10.5334/ai.1315\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://doi.org/10.5334/ai.1315</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 592) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The apogee of the Mali Empire corresponds to the reign of Musa I of the Keita dynasty, the <i>mansa</i> (emperor) who reigned over 24 cities and their surrounding territories from 1312 to 1337. §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 45) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ His empire extended from the Atlantic to Gao and the Niger Inland Delta, and from the southern Sahara to the tropical forest belt. §REF§ (Diop 1987, 93) Cheikh Anta Diop. 1987. <i>Precolonial Black Africa</i>, translated by Harold Salemson. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. §REF§ Musa I is also famed for his patronage of Islam in Mali and for his lavish distribution of gold when he set off on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1325. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 148) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The kings of the Keita dynasty sat at the apex of a confederation incorporating smaller kingdoms such as Ghana and Mema. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 158-60) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ At its height, the empire comprised 12 provinces made up of smaller, village-centred clan units. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 161) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The mansa (emperor) was thus a 'chief of chiefs', assuming the mantle of a supreme patriarch, and he could dispense justice personally. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 160) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ He received advice from the <i>griot</i>, chosen from the Kouyate clan, who was also his spokesman and the tutor of princes. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 160) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br>The aristocracy formed around the Malinke warrior class, §REF§ (Niane 1975, 36) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ including an elite corps of cavalry. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 162) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The empire maintained a strong army, with garrisons stationed in the main towns. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 164) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The merchant class, known as Dyula or Wangara, §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 42) Basil Davidson. 1998. <i>West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850</i>. Routledge: London. §REF§ formed settlements at the margins of the forest regions, such Kankan in modern-day Guinea, Bobo Dioulasso in modern Ivory Coast, and Begho in modern Ghana. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 64) Roland Anthony Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The cities of Mali were cosmopolitan, inhabited by people of every occupation and from every province of the empire, §REF§ (Niane 1984, 145) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ and prospering from their participation in Trans-Saharan trade networks and the export of gold, ivory, salt and slaves. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 42) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ Their characteristic mudbrick architecture, known as <i>banco</i>, can still be admired today. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 150) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ This distinctive architectural style is one of many signs of Mali's legacy in the region, as its language, laws and customs spread through West Africa. In the 15th century, however, a long period of gradual decline began. Timbuktu was captured by the Tuareg in 1433, §REF§ (Ly-Tall 1984, 174) Madina Ly-Tall. 1984. 'The decline of the Mali empire' in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 172-86. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ and a few decades of internal political struggles made it difficult for the emperors to maintain control over such a large region, leading to the contraction of the empire's territory. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 46) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ <br>The empire was densely populated, with a reported 400 towns in the region and a compact net of villages near the trading city of Jenné. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 156) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i> edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ When the Andalusi diplomat Leo Africanus visited Niani in the 16th century, he described a thriving city of 'six thousand hearths'. §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 43) Basil Davidson. 1998. <i>West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850</i>. Routledge: London. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 264, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"Most of the basic Mesoamerican armaments were in existence at this time [Classic period] - atlatls, darts, and spears, we well as clubs (bladed and unbladed), shields, cotton body armor, and unit standards [...] This military organization and technology was carried forward and elaborated on first by Toltecs and then by Aztecs\".§REF§(Hassig 1992: 5) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/E9VHCKDG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/E9VHCKDG</a>.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 15, "name": "MxPostM", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1426, "long_name": "Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico", "new_name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_10", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Middle Postclassic (c. 1200-1426 CE). By this time, Tula no longer held sway over the region, and had been replaced by several city-states (altepetl). Documents written much later record the dynastic histories and conflicts between these city-states; toward the very end of this period, they came to form growing confederations, paving the way for the Aztec empire. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 123-124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§ Major centres such as Azcapotzalco, Texcoco, or Cholula likely had between 20,000 and 30,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ Each altepetl was ruled by a king (tlatoani) and a council of nobles. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 449) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }