Leather Cloth List
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'Background, sources, and methods' in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Population estimates for the entire island at this time do not appear to be available in the literature. However, Whitelaw has estimated the population of Knossos, Crete's largest centre, at 2,600 to 11,000 inhabitants, that of Phaistos at 1,660 to 5,400, and that of Malia at 1,500 to 3,190. §REF§ (Whitelaw 2012, 156) Todd Whitelaw. 2012. 'The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation', in <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, edited by I. Schope, P. Tomkins and J. Driessen. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 55, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " For Abbasid Caliphate: Used for shields. §REF§Kennedy, the Armies of the Caliphs pp. 168-178§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "EgTulIk", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969, "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "new_name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Egypt in the years between 868 and 969 CE is notable for frequent changes in rulers, including three separate regimes in just over a century: the Tulunid Dynasty, the Abbasid Restoration Period, and the Ikshidid Dynasty, which eventually gave way to the Fatimid Caliphate. The Tulunids were a Turkic Dynasty who established an independent rule over Egypt and parts of Syria during a time of instability caused by infighting in the Abbasid court in Damascus. There was a notable 'flowering' of the arts under the Tulunid rulers, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ but the highs and lows of this era of instability are best encapsulated by the reign of Khumarawayh. Although Egypt saw 'peace and prosperity' under his rule, it has been argued that his extravagant lifestyle and 'lavish' spending on building projects and the maintenance of a large standing army 'overtaxed the state's resources'. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ 'When Khumarawayh was murdered by one of his slaves in 896, the treasury was reportedly empty'. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Egypt during the Tulunid-Ikshidid period has been described as 'an autonomous state, albeit under Abbasid suzerainty'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ When Ahmad ibn Tulun was appointed prefect or governor of Egypt in 868 CE, it was a province of the Abbasid Caliphate. Tulun, who was of Turkish ancestry, was recruited from the military §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 24) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Middleton, ed. 2015, 966) J. Middleton, ed. 2015. <i>World Monarchies and Dynasties</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ and 'never formally repudiated Abbasid authority'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 24) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ He took advantage of a revolt in Palestine and Syria to build up a new Egyptian army of Turkish, Nubian, and Greek mercenaries and slaves, which he paid for by seizing control of the revenue of Egypt from the Abbasid-appointed financial director in 871 CE. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ Ibn Tulun also annexed Syria. §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 130) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>With his new army and the Abbasids distracted by unrest in the Levant, Ibn Tulun worked to increase Egyptian autonomy from the caliph in Baghdad; §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ he stopped sending taxes to the Abbasids and established a new capital at al-Qatai, at the neck of the Nile Delta near Fustat. §REF§ (Middleton, ed. 2015, 966) J. Middleton, ed. 2015. <i>World Monarchies and Dynasties</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ This de facto arrangement became official in 886 CE, when a treaty with the Abbasid Dynasty decreed that Khumarawayh and his successors would govern Egypt for a term of three decades §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ - although Egypt would in fact be under Abbasid control again from 905 to 935 CE. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 34) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ After the Ikshidids gained control of Egypt under Muhammad ibn Tughj (935‒946 CE), §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ the Abbasids, in a similar treaty in 939 CE, granted the governorship of Egypt and Syria to 'the Ikshid and his heirs' for 30 years. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>The Tulunid governing apparatus included a vizier, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 35) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ who, after the administrative reforms of Ibn Tulun, §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 130) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ apparently ran a competent bureaucracy that oversaw huge spending projects. Ibn Tulun built an aqueduct and a <i>maristan</i> (hospital), which cost 60,000 dinars. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Founded in 873 CE, the hospital was the first of its kind in Egypt. There was probably a functioning postal system (the Egyptian section of the Abbasid <i>barid</i>). Luxuries were never far away for the affluent elites, who spent their riches freely: Khumarawayh converted the <i>maydan</i> (city square) into a lush garden in the Mesopotamian tradition, while in the Ikshidid period Kafur's palace near the Birkat Qarun cost a monumental 100,000 dinars. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 27, 34) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The population of Egypt and the Levant at this time may have totalled 6.5 million, §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 138, 229) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ and the largest city, Fustat in Egypt, had perhaps 150,000 residents. §REF§ (Modelski 2003, 55) George Modelski. 2003. <i>World Cities -3000 to 2000</i>. Washington, DC: Faros. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 4, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Shields made of leather. §REF§Karasulas, Antony. Mounted archers of the steppe 600 BC-AD 1300. Vol. 120. Osprey Publishing, 2004, p.29.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 129, "name": "AfHepht", "start_year": 408, "end_year": 561, "long_name": "Hephthalites", "new_name": "af_hephthalite_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Hepthalites were one group of a series of nomadic tribal confederations that are sometimes referred to as the White Huns. The evidence seems to indicate that they were a second wave of Hunnish migration. §REF§ <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledgebankarticle/vol_III%20silk%20road_the%20hephthalite%20empire%20BIS.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledgebankarticle/vol_III%20silk%20road_the%20hephthalite%20empire%20BIS.pdf</a> p. 140 §REF§ Despite the name, some scholars think the White Huns were in fact not a Turkic people, but rather the easternmost group of Iranian nomads. §REF§ Docherty, Paddy. The Khyber Pass: a history of empire and invasion. Union Square Press, 2008. p. 105 §REF§ <br>At their peak territorial coverage the Hephthalite lands may have enclosed 26 million people but most subjects likely had a great deal of autonomy. As a nomadic confederation, the Hepthalites may not have possessed a central administration, although evidence indicates at least the adoption of local administrations for the purposes of exacting tribute. §REF§ encyclopedia iranica vol. XII, HAREM I - ILLUMINATIONISM, 2004. Fasc. 2, pp. 198-201 §REF§ During the peak of their power, they seem to have become increasingly sedentary, and this may have increased the degree of centralization. Coins show Hephthalites practiced skull deformation §REF§ (West 2009, 276) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. §REF§ which may provide indirect evidence for strong social hierarchy and status competition.<br>Commentators at the time differed in their opinions as to what the structure of the group was and to what degree they differed from the other nomadic peoples of the area. The Byzantian commentator Procopius of Caesarea stressed that, 'They are not nomadic like the other Hunnish peoples, but have long since settled on fertile land.' He further explained that unlike the other peoples of central asia, the Hepthalites were,'ruled by one king and possess a legal state structure, observing justice among themselves and with their neighbours in no lesser measure than the Byzantines and Persians.' §REF§ <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledgebankarticle/vol_III%20silk%20road_the%20hephthalite%20empire%20BIS.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledgebankarticle/vol_III%20silk%20road_the%20hephthalite%20empire%20BIS.pdf</a> p. 140 §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-06-12T15:06:12.462534Z", "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 8, "name": "Afghanistan", "subregions_list": "Afghanistan", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 297, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 462, "name": "TjSaraz", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2000, "long_name": "Sarazm", "new_name": "tj_sarasm", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "This polity is named after an ancient settlement site at Sarazm, located in modern Tajikistan. The period runs from its initial settlement around 3500 BCE to the site's abandonment c. 2000 BCE. §REF§ (Anthony 2010, 420) Anthony, David W. 2010. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MNNVQRA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MNNVQRA</a>. §REF§ This period at Sarazm represents the first urban phase in Sogdiana and has yielded evidence of ceramic production, agriculture, irrigation and metallurgy. §REF§ (de la Vaissière 2011) Vaissière, É. de la. 2011. “Sogdiana III: History and Archeology.” Encyclopædia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB</a>. §REF§ Ceramic evidence, along with the presence of seashells, suggests that contacts were maintained with different areas of Central Asia. §REF§ (Masson 1992, 232) Masson, V. M. 1992. “The Bronze Age In Khorasan and Transoxania.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume I: The Dawn of Civilizations: Earliest Times to 700 B.C., edited by A. H. Dani and V. M. Masson, 225-46. Paris: UNESCO. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ5DSUEB/q/masson\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ5DSUEB/q/masson</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Isakov 1994, 4-5) Isakov, A. 1994. “Sarazm: An Agricultural Center of Ancient Sogdiana.” Bulletin of the Asia Institute 8: 1-12. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NWVCFNW7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NWVCFNW7</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Due to the nature of the remaining evidence, the political organization of Sarazm is not known. While 100 hectares have been excavated at the site, the settlement area expanded and contracted throughout its existence, making a definite population estimate difficult for this period. §REF§ (de la Vaissière 2011) Vaissière, É. de la. 2011. “Sogdiana III: History and Archeology.” Encyclopædia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 89, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 62, "name": "GrCrNPa", "start_year": -1700, "end_year": -1450, "long_name": "New Palace Crete", "new_name": "gr_crete_new_palace", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Crete is a large island in the Eastern Mediterranean. Here we consider the phase of its history best known as the Neopalatial Era. This period followed a series of conflagrations at the end of the Old Palace era (1700 BCE), which affected almost all Cretan sites. Little agreement exists about the causes of these destructions. Although it has been generally argued that these were possibly caused by earthquake, the senario of war conflicts among major political centers of the period cannot be excluded. §REF§ (La Rosa 1999, 81-89) V. La Rosa. 1999. \"Πολιτική εξουσία και σεισμικές καταστροφές στη Μινωική Κρήτη: η περίπτωση της Φαιστού\" in <i>Κρήτες Θαλασσοδρόμοι</i>, edited by A. Karetou. Heraklion §REF§ §REF§ (Cadogan 2014, 43-54) G. Cadogan. 2014. \"War in the Cretan Bronze Age: the realism of Stylianos Alexiou\". Kritika Chronika 34: 43-54. §REF§ The Neopalatial era ended, in 1450, in a similar way to the previous phase: the central complexes (except for the one at Knossos), many important buildings and whole settlements were violently damaged by fire and abandoned, and the Cretan presence in the Aegean and the Near East came to an end. The causes of these destructions have also been a topic of vivid debate: a massive natural disaster (earthquake), war, internal disruption or system collapse have all been suggested as possible explanations §REF§ (Driessen and Macdonald 1997, 106-109) Jan Driessen. and Colin F. Macdonald. 1997. <i>The Troubled Island. Minoan Crete Before and After the Santorini Eruption</i>. Liège: Université de Liège, Histoire de l'art et archéologie de la Grèce antique; Austin: University of Texas at Austin, Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory §REF§ , though perhaps human rather than natural causes are more likely §REF§ (Christakis 2008, 144-146) Kostis S. Christakis. 2008. <i>The Politics of Storage. Storage and Sociopolitical Complexity in Neopalatial Crete</i>. Philadelphia, Pa.: INSTAP Academic Press. §REF§ .<br>Population and Political Organization<br>Some scholars argue that, during the Neopatial period, the island was divided into small independent \"states\" centered upon large monumental complexes generally known as \"palaces\" §REF§ (Cherry 1986, 19-45) John F. Cherry. 1986. “Polities and palaces: some problems in the Minoan state formation,” in <i>Peer-Polity Interaction and Socio-Political Change</i>, edited by Colin Renfrew and John F. Cherry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Bennet 1990, 193-211) John Bennet. 1990. \"Knossos in context: comparative perspectives on the Linear B administration of LM II-III Crete.\" <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i> 94: 193-211 §REF§ §REF§ (Christakis 2008, 2-7) Kostis S. Christakis. 2008. <i>The Politics of Storage. Storage and Sociopolitical Complexity in Neopalatial Crete</i>. Philadelphia: INSTAP Academic Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Bevan 2010, 27-54) Andrew Bevan. 2010. \"Political geography and palatial Crete.\" <i>Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology</i> 23: 27-54. §REF§ Others favour the notion of a Knossian hegemony, that is, the notion that Crete was politically unified under the control of the ruler at Knossos §REF§ (Betts 1967, 15-40) John H. Betts. 1967. \" New light on Minoan bureaucracy. A reexamination of some Cretan seals.\" <i>Kadmos</i> 6: 15-40 §REF§ §REF§ (Hallager and Hallager 1996, 547-556) E. and B.P. Hallager. 1996. \"The Knossian bull-political propaganda in Neo-palatial Crete,\" in <i>POLITEIA. Society and State in the Aegean Bronze Age. Proceedings of the 5th International Aegean Conference, Heidelberg, 10-13 April 1994</i>, edited by Robert Laffineur and Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier. Liège: Université de Liège, Histoire de l'art et archéologie de la Grèce antique; Austin: University of Texas at Austin, Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory §REF§ §REF§ (Wiener 2007, 231-242) M.W. Wiener. 2007. \"Neopalatial Knossos: rule and role\" in <i>Krinoi kai Limenes. Studies in Honor of Joseph and Maria Shaw</i>, edited by Philip Betancourt, Michael Nelson and Hector Williams. Philadelphia: INSTAP Academic Press §REF§ Yet other have favored the idea of independent political formations emulating Knossos §REF§ (Schoep 1999, 201-221) Ilse Schoep. 1999. \"Tables and territories: reconstructing Late Minoan IB political territories throughout undeciphered documents.\" <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i> 103: 201-21 §REF§ §REF§ (Soles 1995, 405-414) J.S. Soles. 1995. \"The function of a cosmological center: Knossos in palatial Crete\" in <i>POLITEIA. Society and State in the Aegean Bronze Age. Proceedings of the 5th International Aegean Conference, Heidelberg, 10-13 April 1994</i>, edited by Robert Laffineur and Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier. Liège: Université de Liège, Histoire de l'art et archéologie de la Grèce antique; Austin: University of Texas at Austin, Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory §REF§ §REF§ (Knappett and Schoep 2000, 365-371) Carl Knappett and Ilse Schoep. 2000. \"Continuity and change in Minoan political power,\" <i>Antiquity</i> 74: 365-71. §REF§ <br>The population of Crete at this time has been estimated at 242,000 §REF§ (Branigan 2000, 38-50) Keith Branigan. 2000. \"Aspects of Minoan urbanism,\" in <i>Urbanism in the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, edited by Keith Branigan. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. §REF§ , 216,000-271,000 §REF§ (Rackham and Moody 1999, 97) Oliver Rackham and Jennifer Alice Moody. 1999. <i>The Making of the Cretan Landscape</i>, Manchester: Manchester University Press. §REF§ and 260,000 §REF§ (Renfrew 1972, 249) Colin Renfrew. 1972. <i>The Emergence of Civilization</i>, London: Oxbow Books §REF§ . As for Knossos, the largest urban centre in the whole of Prehistoric Greece, Whitelaw estimated Knossian population to 25,000-30,000 people replacing his previous estimate of 14,000-18,000 individuals §REF§ (Whitelaw 2004, 147-158) Todd Whitelaw. 2004. \"Estimating the population of Neopalatial Knossos\" in <i>Knossos: Palace, City, State: Proceedings of the Conference in Herakleion organized by the British School at Athens and the 23rd Ephoreia of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities of Herakleion, in November 2000, for the Centenary of Sir Arthur Evans's Excavations at Knossos</i>, edited by Gerald Cadogan, Eleni Hatzaki and Adonis Vasilakis. London: British School of Athens. §REF§ §REF§ (Whitelaw 2014, 143-144) Todd Whitelaw. 2014. \"Political formations in Prehistoric Crete\". <i>BICS</i> 57: 143-144. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 33, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "CoTairo", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524, "long_name": "Tairona", "new_name": "co_tairona", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The name Tairona is generally used in reference to the indigenous groups of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (a mountain range that stretches along Colombia's Caribbean coast) that came in contact with the Spanish in the sixteenth century, but it is also applied to the prehistoric societies that inhabited that same area, and which are mostly known through the artefacts they left behind. §REF§ (Bray 2003, 301) §REF§ Santiago Giraldo and Juana Saenz have recently estimated that the prehistoric Tairona phase started around 1050 and ended early in the sixteenth century, based on radiocarbon-dated goldwork and complete dated contexts. §REF§ (Giraldo 2015, personal communication) §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>At the time of the Spanish Conquest, the Tairona were organized into independent polities governed by a priestly class and a hierarchy of chiefs. §REF§ (Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 423) §REF§ Most likely, this system began to emerge between the eleventh and the twelfth centuries, as suggested by the appearance of several new ceremonial buildings, new spaces dedicated to feasting activities, a general overhaul of the layout of settlements, and evidence for the expansion and intensification of agricultural activities. §REF§ (Giraldo 2010, 283) §REF§ <br>The population of a typical Tairona polity likely numbered in the hundreds of thousands, with conservative estimates of as much as 500,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Langebaek 2005, 25-7) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2010, 57-58) §REF§ The largest settlements likely reached a population of a few hundred at the beginning of the Tairona phase, between a few hundred and 4,000 between the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries, and between 3,000 and 5,000 in the century immediately preceding the Spanish Conquest. §REF§ (Langebaek 2005, 25-7) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2010, 22-23, 110-111) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2014) §REF§ §REF§ (Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 419-423) §REF§ §REF§ (Moore 2014, 395) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2009, 25) §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 31, "name": "North Colombia", "subregion": "Caribbean", "longitude": "-73.640388097900", "latitude": "10.780287182100", "capital_city": "Santa Marta", "nga_code": "CO", "fao_country": "Colombia", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 21, "name": "Caribbean", "subregions_list": "Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela", "mac_region": { "id": 6, "name": "South America and Caribbean" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 12, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " we need expert input in order to code this variable", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 471, "name": "CnHChin", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1941, "long_name": "Hmong - Early Chinese", "new_name": "cn_hmong_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Hmong are an agricultural people who have inhabited southern China for about 2000 years. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X</a>. §REF§ Made up of several distinct cultures, they are also known as the 'Miao', an insulting term that loosely translates to 'barbarians' or 'bumpkins'. §REF§ (Fadiman 1997) Fadiman, Anne. 1997. The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two Cultures. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. §REF§ The Qing Dynasty was marked by a series of Hmong uprisings, first in western Hunan from 1795 to 1806 CE, and then in Guizhou from 1854 to 1872. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Throughout most of Hmong history, Chinese governmental control was imposed indirectly through native headmen known as <i>tusi</i>, who were responsible for keeping the peace, tax collection and organizing corvée labour. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X</a>. §REF§ During the Republican period, the Chinese government attempted to assimilate the Hmong as much as possible and heavily discouraged displays of Hmong ethnicity. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X</a>. §REF§ <br>In 1954, the population of the Hmong was estimated at 150,000. §REF§ (Graham 1954, 1) Graham, David Crockett. 1954. Songs and Stories of the Ch’uan Miao. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TWKSXKI8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TWKSXKI8</a>. §REF§ Secure population estimates for earlier periods are lacking but the Hmong may have numbered around 200,000 during the Qing Dynasty.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:41:17.246418Z", "home_nga": { "id": 22, "name": "Southern China Hills", "subregion": "South China", "longitude": "103.991730960000", "latitude": "27.538834142800", "capital_city": "Guizhou", "nga_code": "YUN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 59, "name": "South China", "subregions_list": "Yangtze Basin and South China", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 8, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " §REF§(Di Cosmo 2004, 234)§REF§ \"Infantry were often protected with leather or iron lamellar armour.\"§REF§(Peers 1995, 16)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 253, "name": "CnEHan*", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 220, "long_name": "Eastern Han Empire", "new_name": "cn_eastern_han_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "China’s Han dynasty is divided into two periods: Western Han or Former Han (202 BCE-9 CE), and Eastern Han or Later Han (25-220 CE). The period between the two Han dynasties was an interregnum ruled by Wang Mang who overthrow the Han and founded the short-lived Xin dynasty.§REF§ (San 2014, 98) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ Rulers of the Western and Eastern Han are descended from Han founder Liu Bang.§REF§ (San 2014, 98) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ The Han dynasty was reinstated when military troops revolted against Wang Mang and attacked the capital of Chang’an in 23 CE.§REF§ (San 2014, 100) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ The first recognized Eastern Han emperor Emperor Guangwudi moved the capital to Luoyang in 25 CE.§REF§ (San 2014, 100) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§<br>Buddhism spread into China during the Eastern Han period. The religion soon began to influence Chinese morals and ethics.§REF§ (San 2014, 103) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ Han innovation continued into the Eastern Han period. The eunuch Cai Lun invented paper made from mulberry bark in 105 CE.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html</a> Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/</a> §REF§<br>The decline of the Eastern Han was marked by series of natural disasters including floods and plagues beginning in 168 CE.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 38) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a> §REF§ The disasters were accompanied by two large peasant uprisings: the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice rebellion.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.<a href=\"http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/\">http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/</a> Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW</a> §REF§ The Eastern Han also faced constant rebellions from Qiang ethnic minorities.§REF§ (San 2014, 108) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ Provincial warlords aided the central government in suppressing these major rebellions. These warlords eventually became rulers of the provinces.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a> Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a> §REF§ Warlord Dong Zhou seized Luoyang in 190 CE but was defeated by the warlord Cao Cao.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a> Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a> §REF§ Eastern Han emperors stayed on the throne but the Han empire was split between three generals, ushering in the Three Kingdoms period.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 39) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a> §REF§<br>Eastern Han territory covered 6.5 million square kilometers in 100 CE, but only 2.5 million square kilometers by 200 CE.§REF§(Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet)§REF§ At its peak, the Han dynasty encompassed modern China, northern Vietnam, Inner Mongolia, southern Manchuria, and parts of modern Korea.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.<a href=\"http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/\">http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/</a> Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW</a> §REF§<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Eastern Han continued many of the administrative practices of the Western Han.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 37) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a> §REF§ However, the dynasty was marked by bloody political infighting including succession conflicts, and attempts to grab power by consort clans and eunuch cliques.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. <a href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html</a> Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH</a> §REF§ Eunuchs had a strong influence in the Eastern Han government and competed with Confucian officials and the imperial clan. §REF§ (San 2014, 117) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F)</a> §REF§ The decline of the Eastern Han was marked by the rise of strong provincial rulers with independent armies, or warlords, and a weakening of the corrupt central government.<br>The population of the Eastern Han was between 48 and 50 million people in 140 CE.§REF§(Roberts 2003, 56-60) Roberts, J A G (2003) The Complete History of China, Sutton Publishing, Stroud. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZZV3ITUI\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZZV3ITUI</a> §REF§. Luoyang was home to 420,000 people in 100 CE, but only 100,000 by 200 CE.§REF§(Modelski 2003, 44) Modelski, G. 2003. World Cities -3000 to 2000. FAROS 2000. Washington D.C. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IVFNX9HJ\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IVFNX9HJ</a> §REF§§REF§(Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet)§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:41:22.175902Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 15, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " we would expect the earliest defenses to not have been made of metal and so unlikely to have been preserved", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 420, "name": "CnLngsh", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900, "long_name": "Longshan", "new_name": "cn_longshan", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Longshan culture (Chalcolithic China, Jade Age, Lungshanoid horizon) evolved from the Yangshao culture in the Lower Yellow River Valley and the Majiabang culture in the Lower Yangzi River Valley. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 156) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ It is characterized by the presence of dark grey and black polished pottery. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 156) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ The culture was named after Mount Long in Shandong §REF§ (Perkins 1999, 295) Perkins, Dorothy. 1999. Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UXEGQFPU\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UXEGQFPU</a>. §REF§ , and major sites have been uncovered in modern Shaanxi, Shanxi, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, and Shandong. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 156) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ <br>Longshan people used ground stone and chipped stone tools used for agriculture and carving. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 156) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ Millet was the main agricultural staple, and evidence of domesticated rice was found in more than on site. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 158) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ Settlements feature circular ground-level homes with wattle and daub walls, and large square homes built on platforms. Hang-tu earth walls and adobe bricks were also used in settlement construction. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 156) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ <br>Longshan culture was the precursor of the Zhou dynasty in Shaanxi, the state of Qi in Shandong, and Yue and Wu in the Yangzi River Delta. §REF§ (Perkins 1999, 295) Perkins, Dorothy. 1999. Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UXEGQFPU\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UXEGQFPU</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>There is evidence that the Longshan people lived in hierarchical societies. Symbolic jade and other prestige goods including thin walled stemmed cups have been found in elite Longshan burials. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 156) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ Lineages or ranked patronages may have been important in Longshan society, and walled towns with surrounding villages could have been chiefdoms. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 158) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ Scholars believe that violent conflicts increased during the Longshan period, which could be a sign of competition for power. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 159) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§ More research is necessary to estimate the population of Longshan sites. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 157) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:28:32.968892Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 88, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 63, "name": "GrCrMPa", "start_year": -1450, "end_year": -1300, "long_name": "Monopalatial Crete", "new_name": "gr_crete_mono_palace", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Crete is a large island in the Eastern Mediterranean. Here we consider the phase of its history best known as the Monopalatial Era. This period began following the destruction of many Minoan sites around 1450, due either to natural catastrophes or human agency §REF§ (Driessen and Macdonald 1997, 106-109) Jan Driessen. and Colin F. Macdonald. 1997. <i>The Troubled Island. Minoan Crete Before and After the Santorini Eruption</i>. Liège: Université de Liège, Histoire de l'art et archéologie de la Grèce antique; Austin: University of Texas at Austin, Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory §REF§ §REF§ (Christakis 2008, 144-146) Kostis S. Christakis. 2008. <i>The Politics of Storage. Storage and Sociopolitical Complexity in Neopalatial Crete</i>. Philadelphia, Pa.: INSTAP Academic Press. §REF§ , and it ended with the destruction of Knossos §REF§ (Popham 1994, 89-102) Mervyn Popham. 1994. ‘Late Minoan II to the end of the Bronze Age,’ in Knossos: A Labyrinth of History, edited by Don Evely, Helen Hughes-Brock, and Nicoletta Momigliano. British School at Athens; Oxford: Oxbow. §REF§ Throughout this period, Knossos was the main political, administrative and economic centre of the island: analyses of both textual and archaeological data shows that Knossos controlled a series of second-order (e.g. Kydonia and Phaistos) and third-order (e.g. Tylissos) centers §REF§ (Bennet 1988, 19-42) John Bennet. 1988. ‘Outside in the distance: problems in understanding the economic geography of Mycenaean palatial territories,’ in <i>Text, Tablets and Scribes. Studies in Mycenaean Epigraphy and Economy Offered to Emmett L. Bennett, Jr.</i>, edited by Jean-Pierre Olivier and Thomas G. Palaima. Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad. §REF§ §REF§ (Bennet 1990, 193-211) John Bennet. 1990. ‘Knossos in context: comparative perspectives on the Linear B administration of LM II-III Crete’. <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i> 94:193-211. §REF§ . However, a resurgence of elite display at second-order sites, starting in 1370, suggests a possible power shift in the final decades of this era, and the decline of Knossian influence over the island §REF§ (Preston 2008, 316-317) Laura Preston. 2008. ‘Late Minoan II to IIIB Crete,’ in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ .<br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The supreme leader of the state was the king, known as <i>wanax</i> §REF§ (Shelmerdine 2008, 292-295) Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. 2008. ‘12: Mycenaean states. 12A: Economy and administration,’ in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ He presided over the political, economic and religious hierarchy. It is not certain, however, whether he had any military or judicial duties. Ranked second was the <i>lawagetas</i>, a military leader. §REF§ (Nikoloudis, 587-594) S. Nikoloudis. 2008. ‘The role of the ra-wa-ke-ta: insights from PY Un718,’ in <i>Colloquium Romanum: Atti del XII Colloquio Internazionale di Micenologia. Roma 20-15 febbraio 2006</i>, edited by A. Sacconi, M. del Freo, L. Godart, and M. Negri. Rome. §REF§ Below these leaders were the <i>hequetai,</i> followers, who accompanied military contingents and may also performed other functions. Other officials, the so-called collectors, were involved in acquiring and distributing exchange commodities. Among the figures at a lower level were the <i>qasireu</i> who served as overseer of group of workers -the predecessor of the word known from ancient Greek as the word for the king (baseless) - the <i>telestas</i> , officials, the <i>korete</i> and <i>porokorete</i>, mayor and vice-mayor, and scribes §REF§ K. Christakis, pers. comm., 2016 §REF§ .<br>Firth estimates that, at this time, Crete numbered 110,000 inhabitants §REF§ (Firth 1995, 33-55) R.J. Firth. 1995. ‘Estimating the population of Crete during LM IIIA/B’. <i>Minos</i> 29-30: 33-55. §REF§ .", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }