Leather Cloth List
A viewset for viewing and editing Leather Cloth.
GET /api/wf/leathers/?ordering=-id&page=2
{ "count": 354, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/wf/leathers/?ordering=-id&page=3", "previous": "https://seshatdata.com/api/wf/leathers/?ordering=-id", "results": [ { "id": 344, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Coded present due to the following in later Chinese sources, which are relevant for gaining insight on the weapons and armor of Steppe Nomads, as well as being mention as a general characteristic of Steppe Nomad clothing since 750 BC at least. \"Even with strong crossbows that shoot far, and long halberds that hit at a distance, the Hsiung-nu would not be able to ward them off. If the armors are sturdy and the weapons sharp, if the repetition crossbows shot far, and the platoons advance together, the Hsiung-nu will not be able to withstand. If specially trained troops are quick to release (their bows) and the arrows in a single stream hit the target together, then the leather outfit and wooden shields of the Hsiung-nu will not be able to protect them. If they dismount and fight on foot, when swords and halberds clash as [the soldiers] come into close quarters, the Hsiung-nu, who lack infantry training, will not be able to cope.\" §REF§Nicola Di Cosmo. 2002. Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, p. 203§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 466, "name": "UzKok02", "start_year": -750, "end_year": -550, "long_name": "Koktepe II", "new_name": "uz_koktepe_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Rapin and Isamiddinov say that beginning in the 7th or 6th century BCE, we see a 'proto-urbaine' (proto-urban) structure developing at Koktepe, represented by two large fortified areas on platforms. They assign an economic-political function to area A and a sacred one to area B, §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 126) Claude Rapin and Muhammadjon Isamiddinov. 2013. 'Entre sédentaires et nomades: les recherches de la Mission archéologique franco-ouzbèke (MAFOuz) de Sogdiane sur le site de Koktepe'. <i>Cahiers d'Asie centrale</i> 21/22: 113-133. Available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736</a>. §REF§ and speculate that they could be the work of sedentary Scythians. §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 127) Claude Rapin and Muhammadjon Isamiddinov. 2013. 'Entre sédentaires et nomades: les recherches de la Mission archéologique franco-ouzbèke (MAFOuz) de Sogdiane sur le site de Koktepe'. <i>Cahiers d'Asie centrale</i> 21/22: 113-133. Available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736</a>. §REF§ The cultural context of Koktepe during this period differs from that of eastern Central Asia, as represented by the citadel of Ulug Depe. §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 127) Claude Rapin and Muhammadjon Isamiddinov. 2013. 'Entre sédentaires et nomades: les recherches de la Mission archéologique franco-ouzbèke (MAFOuz) de Sogdiane sur le site de Koktepe'. <i>Cahiers d'Asie centrale</i> 21/22: 113-133. Available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736</a>. §REF§ <br>There may be a case, based on similarities in architectural construction, for treating the areas around Samarkand and Padajatak-tepa (near modern-day Shahr-i Sabz) as part of this polity during this period. In an article on Samarkand, Grenet comments: 'C'est donc avec une totale surprise que, en 1991, la fouille mettait en évidence, partout sous les remparts achéménides tant de l'acropole que du plateau, un premier mur épais de 6 mètres relevant d'une tradition défensive et d'une technique différente: non à galerie intérieure, mais massif; bâti non en briques crues rectangulaires de gabarit régulier, mais en briques ovales plus grossières, \"plano-convexes\". Il apparaît maintenant que ce type de maçonnerie caractérise sur d'autres sites aussi la toute première phase de la construction urbaine dans les plaines de Sogdiane (Koktepe à 30 km au nord de Samarkand; Padajatak-tepa, la Nautaca des campagnes d'Alexandre, en Sogdiane méridionale près de Shahr-i Sabz) et dans leur appendice ferghanien (Ejlatan, Dalverzin-tepe)' [It was thus a total surprise when, in 1991, the excavation revealed, throughout the site beneath the Achaemenid ramparts of the acropolis as well as the plateau, a thick earlier wall of 6 metres, related to a different defensive tradition and a different technique: not with an interior gallery, but solid; built not with adobe bricks of a regular size, but of rougher oval-shaped, \"plano-convex\" bricks. It now appears that this type of masonry also characterizes the very first phase of urban construction at other sites of the Sogdian plain (Koktepe, 30 km north of Samarkand; Padajatak-tepa, the Nautaca of Alexander's campaigns, in southern Sogdiana near Shahr-i Sabz) and its Ferganian neighbour (Ejlatan, Dalverzin-tepe)]. §REF§ (Grenet 2004, 1052-53) Frantz Grenet. 2004. 'Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole: Sources écrites et archéologie'. <i>Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales</i>, 59e Année, No. 5/6, Asie centrale: 1043-67. §REF§ <br>\"The transition between the period of the painted pottery (Koktepe I) and the period of the monumental courtyards (Koktepe II) needs further research, as the differences betwen the north-eastern and south-western trends of the early Iron Age cultures still need explanation.\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 35) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br>With regard to the transition between Koktepe I and II, Rapin and Isamiddinov say that the first centuries of the 1st millennium BCE are represented throughout the site by an 'épaisse couche organique' [thick organic layer], suggesting that 'cette période pourrait avoir été celle d'une population semi-sédentaire, peut-être assez nombreuse, qui se serait installée à Koktepe avec du bétail' [this period could have been one of a semi-sedentary population, perhaps quite numerous, which would have been established at Koktepe with cattle]. §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 126) Claude Rapin and Muhammadjon Isamiddinov. 2013. 'Entre sédentaires et nomades: les recherches de la Mission archéologique franco-ouzbèke (MAFOuz) de Sogdiane sur le site de Koktepe'. <i>Cahiers d'Asie centrale</i> 21/22: 113-133. Available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736</a>. §REF§ <br>According to Claude Rapin, for \"the complex question relating to the Early Iron Age in Central Asia\" read this (and another 2001 work)<br>Francfort, H. -P. 1989. Fouilles de Shortugai. Recherches sur l'Asie central protohistorique, Memoires de la Mission archeologique francaise en Asie centrale 2, Paris.<br>JR: Much of the literature on Iron Age Koktepe is in Russian. See the bibliography compiled by Claude Rapin here (pp. 6-7): §REF§ <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://claude.rapin.free.fr/1BibliographiesPDF/1BiblioMafouz1.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://claude.rapin.free.fr/1BibliographiesPDF/1BiblioMafouz1.pdf</a>. §REF§ <br><br/><br> ??? - 1000 BCE Koktepe I<br>1000 - 750 BCE Chronological gap<br>750 - 550 BCE Koktepe II \"sacred courtyard area\" \"strongly fortified courtyards\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br>550 - ??? BCE Scythians? \"nomadic establishment\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br> ??? - ??? BCE Koktepe IIIa \"totally different expression of monumental urbanism\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ - could be Archaemenid<br>\"not impossible that the nomad layers ... and the platforms of Koktepe ... could correspond to the period of the Persian invasion and the organization of the eastern part of the empire by Darius I.\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 37) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br>Koktepe IIIa<br>\"The next period is represented at Koktepe by the construction of two platforms with religious and political functions ... and by a huge fortification wall built in the plain around the site.\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br>\"this rampart seems to have been built at the same time as the fortification that surrounds the plateau of Afrasiab ... Both walls not only protected monumental buildings, but also encircled a large open area, probably for the surrounding population to shelter with their cattle when necessary. This conception is characteristic of Central Asian urbanism near the steppe areas (Francfor 2001), and is also apparent in later cities, such as Ai Khanum or Taxila-Sirkap.\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br>\"The sacred function of the monument, probably related to early Zoroastrianism (or at least to a local cult affiliated to the Indo-Iranian complex), is confirmed by the evidence of a ritual of foundation performed just before its construction.\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 37) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br>\"Pre-Achaemenid period. Before the arrival of Iranian peoples in Central Asia, Sogdiana had already experienced at least two urban phases. The first was at Sarazm (4th-3rd m. BCE), a town of some 100 hectares has been excavated, where both irrigation agriculture and metallurgy were practiced (Isakov). It has been possible to demonstrate the magnitude of links with the civilization of the Oxus as well as with more distant regions, such as Baluchistan. The second phase began in at least the 15th century BCE at Kok Tepe, on the Bulungur canal north of the Zarafsan River, where the earliest archeological material appears to go back to the Bronze Age, and which persisted throughout the Iron Age, until the arrival from the north of the Iranian-speaking populations that were to become the Sogdian group. It declined with the rise of Samarkand (Rapin, 2007). Pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana is recalled in the Younger Avesta (chap. 1 of the Vidēvdād, q.v.) under the name Gava and said to be inhabited by the Sogdians. §REF§ (De la Vaissière, Encyclopedia Iranica online, <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology</a>) §REF§ <br>Edward Turner's interpretation of pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana (Koktepe in particular):<br>'The essential tension was the sedentary population needed (their irrigated) fields for growing crops, nomads needed land for grazing. so the \"strongly fortified courtyards\" is a manifestation of this tension.<br>another reason for fortification would be that wave/s of invasion/destruction had happened before:<br>\"By 1600 BCE, peoples carrying the Andronovo cultural package had displaced, if not destroyed, the Bactrian/Margiana towns\".<br>then the Yaz I replaced the Andronovo - UzKok01. (destruction then as well?)<br>if the inhabitants within the UzKok02 courtyards were Scythians they had probably invaded then settled c750 BCE, presumably causing some destruction of the previous culture.<br>an important line of evidence for invade/destroy/replace also is that it is likely that about 800 BCE the nomadic tribes around Central Asia began to use armies of horseback archers. the fact the sedentarized Scythians built fortifications must reflect the increased danger from the Steppe.<br>their identity lasted until either the Achaemenid or until another wave of Scythians destroyed their culture c550 BCE'.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 343, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 464, "name": "UzKok01", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1000, "long_name": "Koktepe I", "new_name": "uz_koktepe_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "\"Pre-Achaemenid period. Before the arrival of Iranian peoples in Central Asia, Sogdiana had already experienced at least two urban phases. The first was at Sarazm (4th-3rd m. BCE), a town of some 100 hectares has been excavated, where both irrigation agriculture and metallurgy were practiced (Isakov). It has been possible to demonstrate the magnitude of links with the civilization of the Oxus as well as with more distant regions, such as Baluchistan. The second phase began in at least the 15th century BCE at Kok Tepe, on the Bulungur canal north of the Zarafsan River, where the earliest archeological material appears to go back to the Bronze Age, and which persisted throughout the Iron Age, until the arrival from the north of the Iranian-speaking populations that were to become the Sogdian group. It declined with the rise of Samarkand (Rapin, 2007). Pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana is recalled in the Younger Avesta (chap. 1 of the Vidēvdād, q.v.) under the name Gava and said to be inhabited by the Sogdians. §REF§ (De la Vaissière, Encyclopedia Iranica online, <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology</a>) §REF§ <br>\"Archaeologists are now generally agreed that the Andronovo culture of the Central Steppe region in the second millennium BC is to be equated with the Indo-Iranians. However, no matter how pastorally oriented these people's culture probably was, they were no nomads. They lived in permanent houses, not on wagons or in tents as the earliest nomads are known to have done.\" §REF§ (Beckwith 2009, 49) Beckwith, Christopher I. 2009. Empires of the Silk Road. A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ <br><br/>According to Claude Rapin, for \"the complex question relating to the Early Iron Age in Central Asia\" read this (and another 2001 work)<br>Francfort, H. -P. 1989. Fouilles de Shortugai. Recherches sur l'Asie central protohistorique, Memoires de la Mission archeologique francaise en Asie centrale 2, Paris.<br><br/>\"it can be provisionally assumed that the two earlier Iron Age phases distinguished at Koktepe could represent the first manifestations of local agricultural development. Maurizio Tosi has proposed that for the southern slopes of the Zerafshan valley, along the Dargom canal, this economic system could have developed from an earlier period, when irrigation was limited to the natural flows of water from the foothills (Koktepe I period), to a later irrigation system, mainly exemplified by the excavation of the great canals deriving from the Zerafshan, the Bulungur and the Dargom (Koktepe II period).\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 35) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br><br/><br>\"As was the case for various earlier constructions, both monuments were abandoned during a period of nomad invasions, possibly in the sixth century BC. (We know, for instance, that east of the Caspian Sea Darius I had to fight Scythian nomads like those represented by their king Skunkha illustrated as a defeated prisoner on the relief of Behistun).\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br> ??? - 1000 BCE Koktepe I<br>1000 - 750 BCE Chronological gap<br>750 - 550 BCE Koktepe II \"sacred courtyard area\" \"strongly fortified courtyards\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br>550 - ??? BCE Scythians? \"nomadic establishment\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br> ??? - ??? BCE Koktepe IIIa \"totally different expression of monumental urbanism\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ - could be Archaemenid<br><br/>Koktepe IIIa<br>\"The next period is represented at Koktepe by the construction of two platforms with religious and political functions ... and by a huge fortification wall built in the plain around the site.\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br>\"this rampart seems to have been built at the same time as the fortification that surrounds the plateau of Afrasiab ... Both walls not only protected monumental buildings, but also encircled a large open area, probably for the surrounding population to shelter with their cattle when necessary. This conception is characteristic of Central Asian urbanism near the steppe areas (Francfor 2001), and is also apparent in later cities, such as Ai Khanum or Taxila-Sirkap.\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br>\"The sacred function of the monument, probably related to early Zoroastrianism (or at least to a local cult affiliated to the Indo-Iranian complex), is confirmed by the evidence of a ritual of foundation performed just before its construction.\" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 37) Rapin, Claude. \"Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period.\" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ <br><br/>Early Iron Age settlement C14 dated to second-half of second and beginning of first millennium BCE. §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§ <br><div>Koktepe site excavated by C. Rapin and M. Kh. Ismaddinov between 1994 and 2008 by the French Uzbek Archaeological Mission of Sogdiana. §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§ <br>Site about 17ha. §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§ <br>Of samples taken, earliest C14 date c1400-1200 BCE, latest C14 date 810-760 BCE §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§ <br>\"we can now suggest dividing the Early Iron Age in Sogdiana into two sub-periods characterized by a strong continuity.\" §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§ </div><br>Köktepe I:<br>\" L’objet le plus ancien de Koktepe est un poids discoïdal en pierre muni d’une anse datable du XVIIIe siècle av. n. è. Cette trouvaille isolée d’un instrument cultuel suppose le voisinage d’un site du bronze moyen que l’on ne peut identifier pour le moment, car les périodes les plus anciennes de l’occupation de la plaine du Zerafshan ne sont pour l’essentiel représentées aujourd’hui que par le site de Sarazm (Lyonnet 1996) et des trouvailles funéraires isolées (Avanesova 2010).<br>Le milieu urbain au début de l’occupation de Koktepe est celui d’une agglomération relativement dense composée de maisons à pièces multiples construites en piséau-dessus du sol, plus rarement creusées dans le sol naturel, mais vers la fin de cette période, l’habitat n’est plus représenté que par des huttes légères (figures 6-7). Le développement économique repose alors encore sur une agriculture sèche qui pourrait avoir été périodiquement secondée par les eaux d’un torrent de montagne (communications orales de B. Rondelli et M. Isamiddinov). Durant cette première phase, le site s’inscrit dans le contexte de la céramique modelée peinte caractéris-tique de la culture de Burgulûk (oasis de Tashkent), qui fait elle-même partie de la civilisation qui, du Turkménistan au Xinjiang, s’étend dans la période de transition entre l’age du bronze et l’age du fer, du dernier tiers du IIe millénaire au début du Ier millénaire av. n. è. (époque dite « de Yaz I ») (Lhuillier 2010 ; Lhuillier, Isamiddinov, Rapin 2012 ; Lyonnet, ce volume).\" §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 124-125) §REF§ During its first phase, Kok Tepe was part of the Burguluk culture, which corresponds to the Yaz I civilization from Turkmenistan to Xinjiang (last third of the second millennium BCE- beginning of the first millennium BCE)<br>\"Pre-Achaemenid period. Before the arrival of Iranian peoples in Central Asia, Sogdiana had already experienced at least two urban phases. The first was at Sarazm (4th-3rd m. BCE), a town of some 100 hectares has been excavated, where both irrigation agriculture and metallurgy were practiced (Isakov). It has been possible to demonstrate the magnitude of links with the civilization of the Oxus as well as with more distant regions, such as Baluchistan. The second phase began in at least the 15th century BCE at Kok Tepe, on the Bulungur canal north of the Zarafšān River, where the earliest archeological material appears to go back to the Bronze Age, and which persisted throughout the Iron Age, until the arrival from the north of the Iranian-speaking populations that were to become the Sogdian group. It declined with the rise of Samarkand (Rapin, 2007). Pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana is recalled in the Younger Avesta (chap. 1 of the Videvdad, q.v.) under the name Gava and said to be inhabited by the Sogdians. §REF§ (De la Vaissière, Encyclopedia Iranica online, <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology</a>) §REF§ <br><br/>Transition period between Kok01 and Kok02:\"Sur le plan stratigraphique, la fin de cette première période vers la fin du IIe ou le début du Ier millénaire est apparemment marquée par une interruption de la céra-mique peinte. D’après les vestiges d’une épaisse couche organique présente partout sur le site, cette période pourrait avoir été celle d’une population semi-sédentaire, peut-être assez nombreuse, qui se serait installée à Koktepe avec du bétail. §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 126) §REF§ <br>transition period: starting in the late 2nd millennium BCE/early 1st millennium BCE<br>no more painted ceramic<br>thick organic layer found stratigraphically on the whole site: semi-sedentary population, living on Koktepe with their animals.<br>Edward Turner's interpretation of pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana (Koktepe in particular):<br>'The essential tension was the sedentary population needed (their irrigated) fields for growing crops, nomads needed land for grazing. so the \"strongly fortified courtyards\" is a manifestation of this tension.<br>another reason for fortification would be that wave/s of invasion/destruction had happened before:<br>\"By 1600 BCE, peoples carrying the Andronovo cultural package had displaced, if not destroyed, the Bactrian/Margiana towns\".<br>then the Yaz I replaced the Andronovo - UzKok01. (destruction then as well?)<br>if the inhabitants within the UzKok02 courtyards were Scythians they had probably invaded then settled c750 BCE, presumably causing some destruction of the previous culture.<br>an important line of evidence for invade/destroy/replace also is that it is likely that about 800 BCE the nomadic tribes around Central Asia began to use armies of horseback archers. the fact the sedentarized Scythians built fortifications must reflect the increased danger from the Steppe.<br>their identity lasted until either the Achaemenid or until another wave of Scythians destroyed their culture c550 BCE'.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 342, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Probably present for the Andronovo charioteers but by the 12th century BCE \"mounted horsemen armed with bows and arrows replaced chariot drivers\"§REF§(Kuz'mina 2007, 138) Elena Efimovna Kuzʹmina. 2007. The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. J P Mallory ed. BRILL. Leiden.§REF§ so we need to know what armour (if any) they wore. Tazabagyab culture is considered to have had its origin in Andronovo culture.§REF§(Mallory 1997, 20-21) J P Mallory. Andronovo culture. J P Mallory. D Q Adams. eds. 1997. Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. Chicago.§REF§ Andronovo culture (2000-900 BCE, Alakul phase 2100-1400 BCE, Fedorovo phase 1400-1200 BCE, Alekseyevka phase 1200-1000 BCE). Tazabagyab culture (15th - 11th), Suyarganskaya culture (11th - 9th), Amirabad culture (9th - 8th).", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 465, "name": "UzKhw01", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -521, "long_name": "Ancient Khwarazm", "new_name": "uz_khwarasm_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "\"The most interesting Early Iron Age culture of ancient Khorezm was that of Amirabad in the tenth to eighth centuries b.c.2 Dozens more settlements were found in the lower reaches of the former channels of Akcha Darya, the ancient delta of the Amu Darya. The most interesting was Yakka-Parsan II, alongside which were found ancient fields, and the remnants of an Amirabad-period irrigation system (Fig. 1). The old channel passed near by, its banks being reinforced with dykes.Two rows of semi-dugout houses - some twenty in all - were found in the Yakka-Parsan II settlement. Large numbers of storage pits were found around the houses, and the entire site is rich in animal bones, pottery, grain-querns and so on. The houses stood between two canals that merged to the south, all the doors giving on to the canals. Rectangular in ground-plan, the houses were 90 to 110 m2 in area and had two or three rooms. The interiors contained many storage pits and post-holes, each with a long fireplace in the centre. The major finds were pottery, hand-made with a darkish brown, red or greyish slip, the shoulders of the bowls being decorated with small crosses, lattice-work or 'fir-trees'. Accord ing to S. P. Tolstov, the Amirabad culture was genetically akin to the Kaundy complex and dates from the ninth to eighth centuries b.c. It should be observed that the pottery shows more obvious traces of Karasuk influence, the commonest shapes being similar to the ceramics ofthe latter; this entitles us to date its origins to a somewhat earlier period - the tenth century b.c. Other finds include bronze artefacts - a needle with an eye, a sickle with a shaped handle, a bronze arrow¬ head with a shaft - and stone moulds for casting shaft-hole arrowheads and sickles. A bronze sickle, large numbers of grain-querns and the advanced irrigation network and fields together show that agriculture was widely practised, while the bone finds further indicate that the population was engaged in stock- breeding.3\" §REF§ (Askarov 1992, 441-443) §REF§ <br>\"The Achaemenids found in Sogdiana an urban civilization. Along two divergent canals fed by the Zarafshan, the proto-Dargom and the Bulungur, two gigantic sites, Afrasiab-Samarkand and Kök Tepe - each covering more than two hundred hectares - were occupied from the 8th or 7th century before our era.2 The valley of the Zarafshan had already known an earlier urban phase at the site of Sarazm, a small distance upstream from Samarkand, but this phase had ended a millenium before.3 Kök Tepe declined rapidly, but Samarkand became for two millenia the greatest city of Sogdiana, and, with Merv and Bactra, one of the very great cities of western Central Asia. The Achaemenids brought writing to Sogdiana, and the written language long remained the Aramaic of the Achaemenid Empire.\" §REF§ (De la Vaissière 2005, 17) §REF§ <br>\"The 6th and 5th cenuries BC are represented by only a few monuments, and the nature of Persian political and economic control over Chorasmia is,, therefore, still in question. Similarly unresolved is the question of the introduction of large-scale irrigation to the area - whether this was an indigenous development, gradually evolving as the cattle-breeding nomadic tribes became sedentised, or whether it was a new technology introduced by an hydraulic imperial state, the Achaemenid Empire under Darius I, in about 525 BC. Up until last year only three large-scale settlements of this period were properly documented - i.e. Kiuzeli-g'ir, Kakal'i-g'ir, and Chirik-rabat.\" §REF§ (Helms 1998, 87-88) §REF§ <br>Reference to check: A. I. Isakov, “Sarazm: An Agricultural Center of Ancient Sogdiana,” Bulletin of the Asia Institute 8, 1996, pp. 1-13.<br>'The process of urbanization began earlier and on a greater scale in Chorasmia and on the left bank of the middle Syr Darya, localities which were more advanced in economic and cultural terms. They were geographically closer to the ancient urban centres of south-western and southern Central Asia and were open to their influence through Margiana and Sogdiana. They were later incorporated as provinces of the Achaemenid Empire and came into its socio-economic orbit for a time. In the southern Aral region, the sedentary farmers and pastoralists of the Chorasmian oasis represent the Late Bronze Age Amirabad cultural pattern seen in the Dzhanbas and Yakka-Parsan settlements. At that time they had master craftsmen (the 'house of the caster') with settled houses and social gradations. [...] The oldest Chorasmian city, and the key monument of this period, was Kyuzeli-gir, dating from the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. It lay on the left bank of the Amu Darya in the Sarîkamîsh region of the delta. Standing on a natural elevation, roughly triangular in ground-plan, it occupied an area of 25 ha. The city was surrounded by a powerful defensive wall with oval bastions. Its residential district was densely packed with buildings of rectangular unbaked brick and pakhsa. It had an advanced pottery industry, based on the wheel, and art objects of a type common in Saka burial complexes of the period have been found. Another early city of the same date, Kalalî-gîr, was surrounded by triple walls with bastions and had four gates with entrance barbicans and a hill-top palace, but it was never completed.' §REF§ (Negmatov 1994, 446) §REF§ <br>Throughout the periods Helms and Yagodin focus on in their 1997 article (from the end of the Bronze Age to the incursions of the Hephthalites, Turks and early 'Afrighids' in the mid-1st millennium CE), 'the region saw the infiltration of many nomadic groups (initially cattle-breeders, later also sheep-goat and camel) some of which formed settled communities, even states and empires. These are the Scythians (a generic term), Massagetae, Sacae, Sav[u]romats, Yueh-chih (later \"Kushans\"), Sarmatians, and others of the Greek, Persian, and Chinese sources. Identifying evidence of their presence has never been easy: the bulk of data has had to come from burials (kurgans) whose contents have been loosely arranged in a relative chronology (see Itina 1979). Recent work by Yagodin has provided more precise information regarding tribal groupings in and about ancient Chorasmia, including the Ustiurt Plateau, as early as the \"Archaic\" period (Yagodin 1990) and, more generally, the major trade routes (i.e., the Silk Road) through northern Central Asia (Yagodin 1994)'. §REF§ (Helms and Yagodin 1997, 44) Svend Helms and Vadim N. Yagodin. 1997. 'Excavations at Kazakl'i-Yatkan in the Tash-Ki'rman Oasis of Ancient Chorasmia: A Preliminary Report'. <i>Iran</i> 35: 45-47. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 341, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " <i>Probably for shields and body armour?</i>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 469, "name": "UzJanid", "start_year": 1599, "end_year": 1747, "long_name": "Khanate of Bukhara", "new_name": "uz_janid_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "\"Under their rule the city and khanate crystallized into an almost classical pattern of a Muslim polity of its time, cherishing and even enhancing traditional values while ignoring or rejecting the vertiginous changes initiated by the Europeans but now reaching other parts of the world. Most khans, especially the virtuous Abdalaziz (ruled 1645-81), were devout Muslims who favored the religious establishment and adorned Bukhara with still more mosques and madrasas.\" §REF§ (Soucek 2000, 177) §REF§ <br>\"(g) Janids or Ashtarkhanids (or Toqay-Timurids: descendants of Toqay-Timur, Juchi’s 13th son); Bukhara, 1599-1785; Bosworth, pp. 290-1)x. Yar Muhammad1. Jani Muhammad (1599-1603)2. Baqi Muhammad (1603-1606), his son, 2nd generation3. Vali Muhammad (1606-12), Baqi Muhammad’s brother4. Imam Quli (1612-42), their nephew, 3rd generation5. Nazr Muhammad (1642-45), his brother6. Abd al-Aziz (1645-81), Nazr Muhammad’s son, 4th generation 7. Subhan Quli (1681-1702), Abd al-Aziz’s brother8. Ubaydallah I (1702-11), Subhan Quli’s son, 5th generation9. Abu l-Fayz (1711-47), Ubaydallah’s brother10. Abd al-Mu’min (1747), his son,6th generation11. Ubaydallah II (1747-53), Abd al-Mu’min’s brotherx. [Muhammad Rahim the Manghit, in the absence of Janid incum- bency]12. Abu l-Ghazi (1758-85), from a lateral branchEnd of Genghisid rule in Transoxania\" §REF§ (Soucek 2000, 325-326) §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 340, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Illustration in Rashidu'd Din's \"History of the World\": \"helmets are rounded, with a central ornamental spike, and frequently have a turned-up peak or reinforce over the brow. Nape guards are of mail, leather or fabric, as are probably the deep collars of the lamellar coats.\"§REF§(Robinson 1967) Robinson, H. Russell. 1967. Oriental Armour. Walker and Co. New York.§REF§ \"In 1393 we hear of Persian soldiers dressed in mail (zirih baktah), with helmets and cuirasses of velvet-covered iron plates - a form of brigandine is suggested - and their horses protected by a kind of cuirass made of quilted silk.\"§REF§(Robinson 1967) Robinson, H. Russell. 1967. Oriental Armour. Walker and Co. New York.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 296, "name": "UzChagt", "start_year": 1263, "end_year": 1402, "long_name": "Chagatai Khanate", "new_name": "uz_chagatai_khanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "\"Under Kebeg's successor Tarmashirin Khan (1326-1334) the khan's more conservative and nomadic followers rebelled against his policy of assimilation with the settled population, and deposed the khan. In the disturbances which followed Tarmashirin's downfall the Chaghadayid khanate split into two parts; the western section, Transoxiana, became known as the Ulus Chaghatay, and the eastern section as Moghulistan.5\" §REF§ (Forbes Manz 1983, 82) §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 339, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " The Oneota are known solely from their material remains§REF§(Hall 1997, 142) Hall, Robert L. 1997. An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and Ritual. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8KH357GV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8KH357GV</a>.§REF§, and leather and cloth do not tend to survive in the archaeological record.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 29, "name": "USOneot", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1650, "long_name": "Oneota", "new_name": "us_oneota", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "'Oneota' is the modern name given to a group of late prehistoric or protohistoric cultures, known solely from their material remains and centred on modern-day Iowa, Minnesota and Wisconsin in the Midwestern United States. §REF§ (Hall 1997, 142) Hall, Robert L. 1997. An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and Ritual. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8KH357GV\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8KH357GV</a>. §REF§ Oneota migrations can be traced archaeologically: for instance, some groups using Oneota-style material culture began appearing alongside Mississippian populations in the American Bottom region (modern southwestern Illinois) during the Sand Prairie phase (c. 1275-1400 CE). §REF§ (Pauketat 1994, 47) Pauketat, Timothy R. 1994. The Ascent of Chiefs: Cahokia and Mississippian Politics in Native North America. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NJHPTUJ8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NJHPTUJ8</a>. §REF§ We are concerned here with the period of Oneota activity between c. 1400 and 1650 CE, but it should be noted that the roots of the tradition are to be found before 1400. Small quantities of European trade goods appear in the Illinois archaeological record around the beginning of the 17th century CE, marking the beginning of the 'protohistoric' period in this region. §REF§ (Emerson and Brown 1992, 102) Emerson, Thomas E., and James A. Brown. 1992. \"The Late Prehistory and Protohistory of Illinois.\" In Calumet and Fleur-De-Lys: French and Indian Interaction in the Midcontinent, edited by J. Walthall and T. Emerson, 77-125. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/C877T4HD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/C877T4HD</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Oneota society was relatively egalitarian, more so than the preceding Mississippian cultures: there is a lack of evidence from Oneota settlements or funerary contexts for inherited status or class distinctions. §REF§ (Gibbon 2001, 390-91) Gibbon, Guy E. 2001. \"Oneota.\" In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 6: North America, edited by Peter N. Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 389-407. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QU7PNRMC\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QU7PNRMC</a>. §REF§ It has been suggested that political leadership was provided by 'big men', who relied on informal support from village populations and could not pass on their positions to their children. §REF§ (Gibbon 2001, 390-91) Gibbon, Guy E. 2001. \"Oneota.\" In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 6: North America, edited by Peter N. Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 389-407. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QU7PNRMC\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QU7PNRMC</a>. §REF§ <br>Reliable estimates for the size of the Oneota population between 1400 and 1650 CE are lacking. §REF§ (Hart 1990, 570-71) Hart, John P. 1990. \"Modeling Oneota Agricultural Production: A Cross-Cultural Evaluation.\" Current Anthropology 31 (5): 569-77. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MJKQA3W5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MJKQA3W5</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 28, "name": "Cahokia", "subregion": "Mississippi Basin", "longitude": "-90.062035000000", "latitude": "38.658938000000", "capital_city": "St. Louis", "nga_code": "USMO", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 24, "name": "Mississippi Basin", "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 338, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " No evidence for the use of leather as armor. §REF§(Peregrine 2014, personal communication)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "absent", "polity": { "id": 27, "name": "USMisSp", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 900, "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian I", "new_name": "us_emergent_mississippian_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Sponemann-Collinsville-Loyd Period at Cahokia (750-900 CE) is significant for being a foundational period for later social developments at Cahokia. At this time appears the first signs of warfare, an increase in social complexity and more widespread consumption of farmed crops like maize.<br>The increase in social complexity was reflected in settlements with houses clustered into court-yard groups. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ While there is little evidence for warfare in the preceding Middle Woodland §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ from c800 CE there is evidence of inter-group violence as human bones have been recovered with arrow points embedded into them in individual and group burials. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ Some settlements even gained palisades and ditches §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ , although at this time they were present at only a tiny fraction of all sites (0.5% between 800-950 CE §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) G R Milner. G Chaplin. E Zavodny. 2013. Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:96-102. Wiley. §REF§ ). After 700-800 CE there was a dramatic intensification of food production, particularly of maize farming, which brought higher yields and enabled more food to be extracted from a smaller territory and would lead to population growth. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ §REF§ (Iseminger 2010, 26) W R Iseminger. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston. §REF§ §REF§ (Milner 2006, xx) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ <br>The evidence suggests communities experienced increased differentiation of social roles, with individuals dedicated to \"community defense, organization of labor, and communal storage of maize in secure central places\". §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ The Upper Mississippi region was populated by a number of small communities. The population of largest settlement was probably in the region of 500 people - although this population was not resident at the site that later became Cahokia.<br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 28, "name": "Cahokia", "subregion": "Mississippi Basin", "longitude": "-90.062035000000", "latitude": "38.658938000000", "capital_city": "St. Louis", "nga_code": "USMO", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 24, "name": "Mississippi Basin", "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 337, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " No evidence for the use of leather as armor. §REF§(Peregrine 2014, personal communication)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "absent", "polity": { "id": 28, "name": "USMisSd", "start_year": 1275, "end_year": 1400, "long_name": "Cahokia - Sand Prairie", "new_name": "us_cahokia_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Sand Prairie phase is the name given by archaeologists to the period between around 1275 and 1400 CE in the American Bottom region, the portion of the floodplain of the Mississippi now located in southwestern Illinois. §REF§ (Kelly et al. 1984, 130) Kelly, John E., Steven J. Ozuk, Douglas K. Jackson, Dale L. McElrath, Fred A. Finney, and Duane Esarey. 1984. \"Emergent Mississippian Period.\" In American Bottom Archaeology: A Summary of the FAI-270 Project Contribution to the Culture History of the Mississippi River Valley, edited by Charles L. Bareis and James W. Porter, 128-57. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2UP556X5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2UP556X5</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Hall 2000, 13) Hall, Robert L. 2000. \"Cahokia Identity and Interaction Models of Cahokia Mississippian.\" In Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest, edited by Thomas E. Emerson and R. Barry Lewis, 3-34. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WNR98AWH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WNR98AWH</a>. §REF§ This period is considered the final phase of the Mississippian culture. §REF§ (Milner 1986, 234) Milner, George R. 1986. \"Mississippian Period Population Density in a Segment of the Central Mississippi River Valley.\" American Antiquity 51 (2): 227-38. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S</a>. §REF§ The chronology is not universally agreed upon, however: the dates given by different scholars for the Sand Prairie phase vary. §REF§ (Hall 2000, 13) Hall, Robert L. 2000. \"Cahokia Identity and Interaction Models of Cahokia Mississippian.\" In Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest, edited by Thomas E. Emerson and R. Barry Lewis, 3-34. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WNR98AWH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WNR98AWH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Sand Prairie phase was one of decreasing social complexity and depopulation at the site of Cahokia and on the surrounding Middle Mississippi floodplain. §REF§ (Emerson 1997, 6, 53) Emerson, Thomas E. 1997. Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74</a>. §REF§ Already by 1150 CE, archaeological evidence indicates that the political and ceremonial ties binding the site of Cahokia and its elite to its hinterland were weakening, and by 1350, there are very few signs of culturally Mississippian populations left in the American Bottom. §REF§ (Pauketat and Bernard 2004, 38-39) Pauketat, Timothy, and Nancy Stone Bernard. 2004. Cahokia Mounds. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MH4W8AV5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MH4W8AV5</a>. §REF§ During the Sand Prairie phase, Mississippians seem to have abandoned the old monumental sites and dispersed out of the river valley into the uplands. §REF§ (Emerson 1997, 53) Emerson, Thomas E. 1997. Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74</a>. §REF§ The evidence for political hierarchies and inherited status distinctions is much weaker than for previous periods, and community activity may have revolved around funerary rites at rural cemeteries. §REF§ (Emerson 1997, 180) Emerson, Thomas E. 1997. Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74</a>. §REF§ <br>The population of the site of Cahokia and the surrounding Mississippi floodplain reached its lowest point for several centuries during this period. §REF§ (Milner 1986, 227) Milner, George R. 1986. \"Mississippian Period Population Density in a Segment of the Central Mississippi River Valley.\" American Antiquity 51 (2): 227-38. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Pauketat and Lopinot 1997, 120) Pauketat, Timothy R., and Neal H. Lopinot. 1997. \"Cahokian Population Dynamics.\" In Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World, edited by Timothy R. Pauketat and Thomas E. Emerson, 103-23. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. §REF§ Concrete population estimates are difficult to find, but archaeologist George Milner has estimated a Sand Prairie-period population density of between one and seven people per square kilometre for a stretch of the Mississippi floodplain just south of Cahokia. §REF§ (Milner 1986, 227) Milner, George R. 1986. \"Mississippian Period Population Density in a Segment of the Central Mississippi River Valley.\" American Antiquity 51 (2): 227-38. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 28, "name": "Cahokia", "subregion": "Mississippi Basin", "longitude": "-90.062035000000", "latitude": "38.658938000000", "capital_city": "St. Louis", "nga_code": "USMO", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 24, "name": "Mississippi Basin", "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 336, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Inferred from the following. \"About two millennia ago, during the Middle Woodland period, which spanned several hundred years, intergroup conflict ending in violence was largely absent from eastern North America. Compared to both earlier Archaic hunter-gatherers and later village agriculturalists, few Middle Woodland skeletons have projectile points lodged in bones, distinctive stone-axe injuries, or signs of mutilation such as decapitation and scalping. [...] The scarcity of such injuries is not a result of inadequate sampling, since there are large and well-preserved skeletal collections dating to this period, especially from the Midwest. A rather sudden adoption of food-procurement practices that shifted the balance between resources and consumers to a time of relative plenty presumably played a big part in establishing conditions conducive to openness among otherwise separate groups.\" The situation only changed \"[l]ate in the first millennium AD\".§REF§(Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013, 96-97) Milner, George, George Chaplin, and Emily Zavodny. 2013. “Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America.” <i>Evolutionary Anthropology</i> 22: 96-102. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6</a>§REF§ Of course, such objects would not survive in the archaeological record.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "absent", "polity": { "id": 24, "name": "USMisRo", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 450, "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland I", "new_name": "us_woodland_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "2000 BCE<div>Period of population growth begins §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>1 CE<br><div>c1 CE \"large quantities of native cultigens began to be incorporated into midcontinental diets. §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>100 CE<div>Maize appears in the archaeological record §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Atlatl is the contemporary weapon §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"periodic rituals at ceremonial mound centers\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"groups ensured access to needed resources through maintenance of alliance-exchange relationships\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>200 CE<br>300 CE<div>Early arrowheads appear. \"Beginning A.D. 300-400, the bow replaced the atlatl in most regions\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>In the Mississippian region (Midwest and Upland South) the transition from atlatl to bow was \"relatively rapid because dart points disappear from the archaeological record\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Introduction of the bow in the Mississippi region decreased social complexity because it caused the collapse of the Hopewell system, the abandonment of mound centers and alliance-exchange relationships §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Bow enabled a new bow and native crops subsistence strategy which lead to a movement to and the effective exploitation of previously marginal lands and \"household autonomy\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>There followed an economic intensification and population growth which eventually \"packed the landscape with settlements.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>400 CE<br>500 CE<br><br/>\"The greatest environmental hazard would have been a late summer Mississippi River flood similar to the one that took place in 1993. A rise in the river at that time of the year simultaneously drowned crops, prevented easy fishing in shallow ponds, and ruined food stored in underground pits. Floods attributable to severe storms, including excessive water funnelled into the floodplain by creeks that drain the uplands, certainly caused localized disasters much like they did a century ago before effective flood-control measures were put in place.\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§ <br>\"No other major site was as advantageously situated. Cahokia was located in what was by far the widest expanse of land suitable for settlement in the American Bottom. More people could live there than anywhere else ... The high ground where Cahokia was located was bordered on the north and south by large tracts of low-lying land that received the waters of different upland streams.\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§ <br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 28, "name": "Cahokia", "subregion": "Mississippi Basin", "longitude": "-90.062035000000", "latitude": "38.658938000000", "capital_city": "St. Louis", "nga_code": "USMO", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 24, "name": "Mississippi Basin", "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 335, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Inferred from the following. \"About two millennia ago, during the Middle Woodland period, which spanned several hundred years, intergroup conflict ending in violence was largely absent from eastern North America. Compared to both earlier Archaic hunter-gatherers and later village agriculturalists, few Middle Woodland skeletons have projectile points lodged in bones, distinctive stone-axe injuries, or signs of mutilation such as decapitation and scalping. [...] The scarcity of such injuries is not a result of inadequate sampling, since there are large and well-preserved skeletal collections dating to this period, especially from the Midwest. A rather sudden adoption of food-procurement practices that shifted the balance between resources and consumers to a time of relative plenty presumably played a big part in establishing conditions conducive to openness among otherwise separate groups.\" The situation only changed \"[l]ate in the first millennium AD\".§REF§(Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013, 96-97) Milner, George, George Chaplin, and Emily Zavodny. 2013. “Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America.” <i>Evolutionary Anthropology</i> 22: 96-102. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/PAF8KM8K/itemKey/QR77EGA6</a>§REF§ Of course, such objects would not survive in the archaeological record.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "absent", "polity": { "id": 26, "name": "USMisPa", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 750, "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland III", "new_name": "us_woodland_5", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "2000 BCE<div>Period of population growth begins §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>1 CE<br><div>c1 CE \"large quantities of native cultigens began to be incorporated into midcontinental diets. §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§ </div><br>100 CE<div>Maize appears in the archaeological record §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Atlatl is the contemporary weapon §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"periodic rituals at ceremonial mound centers\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"groups ensured access to needed resources through maintenance of alliance-exchange relationships\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>200 CE<br>300 CE<div>Early arrowheads appear. \"Beginning A.D. 300-400, the bow replaced the atlatl in most regions\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>In the Mississippian region (Midwest and Upland South) the transition from atlatl to bow was \"relatively rapid because dart points disappear from the archaeological record\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Introduction of the bow in the Mississippi region decreased social complexity because it caused the collapse of the Hopewell system, the abandonment of mound centers and alliance-exchange relationships §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Bow enabled a new bow and native crops subsistence strategy which lead to a movement to and the effective exploitation of previously marginal lands and \"household autonomy\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>There followed an economic intensification and population growth which eventually \"packed the landscape with settlements.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>400 CE<br>500 CE<br>600 CE<div>Late arrowheads appear. \"This transition to small, thin, triangular or triangular corner-notched points has long been accepted as evidence of the bow, but variation in the morphology of late arrow point types suggest that this transition was governed by social and historical factors that varied across these regions.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Late arrowheads may indicate the technological development of fletching as they are less heavy and thick than the early arrowheads. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>First evidence of intergroup violence appears in the archaeological record (arrowpoints embedded in skeletons in individual and group burials). §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>No evidence for an increase in social complexity and hierarchy or deviation from the \"trend toward household autonomy\" at this time. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"For the first time, there is evidence, in the form of group and individual burials with embedded arrow points, of the bow as the primary weapon of intergroup violence.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"In Middle Woodland times there isn’t much evidence for warfare.\" \"Later, after about A.D. 600 there is more evidence (scalping, embedded arrow points).\" §REF§ (Peregrine/Pauketat 2014, 16) §REF§ <br>\"Population growth, reduced access to resources, sedentism, and the desire to avoid conflict made the high costs of intensified food production more attractive.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>700 CE<br>800 CE<div>Intensification of Maize farming begins. Higher yields from maize cultivation enables more food to be extracted from a smaller territory. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>\"Although there is scattered evidence for corn, or maize, during Middle Woodland times, it wasn't until Late Woodland times, after AD 700-800, that it became an important food crop.\" §REF§ (Iseminger 2010, 26) §REF§ <br>Social complexity increases from this period. \"Site plans gained greater internal complexity as houses clustered into court-yard groups and, toward [1000 CE], the southern pattern of civic-ceremonial centers with large earthen mounds was established in many places. Nucleated settlements may have been a defensive response to bow warfare. Burials with embedded arrow points and sites fortified with palisades and ditches are widespread, although no present everywhere... New social roles linked to community defense, organization of labor, and communal storage of maize in secure central places laid the foundation for the increased group differentiation, competition, and hierarchy of the Mississippian period beginning A.D. 1000.\" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ <br>Palisades and ditches appear in the archaeological record. The first evidence of substantial intergroup warfare. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§ </div><br>\"trail networks also are important, and some of the historic east-west ones cross near Cahokia.\" §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 21) §REF§ <br>Cahokia \"controlled a critical choke point in trade routes that spanned the midcontinent\" an idea that goes back to Brackenridge (1813 CE). §REF§ (Milner 2006, 12) §REF§ <br>\"The greatest environmental hazard would have been a late summer Mississippi River flood similar to the one that took place in 1993. A rise in the river at that time of the year simultaneously drowned crops, prevented easy fishing in shallow ponds, and ruined food stored in underground pits. Floods attributable to severe storms, including excessive water funnelled into the floodplain by creeks that drain the uplands, certainly caused localized disasters much like they did a century ago before effective flood-control measures were put in place.\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§ <br>\"No other major site was as advantageously situated. Cahokia was located in what was by far the widest expanse of land suitable for settlement in the American Bottom. More people could live there than anywhere else ... The high ground where Cahokia was located was bordered on the north and south by large tracts of low-lying land that received the waters of different upland streams.\" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§ <br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 28, "name": "Cahokia", "subregion": "Mississippi Basin", "longitude": "-90.062035000000", "latitude": "38.658938000000", "capital_city": "St. Louis", "nga_code": "USMO", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 24, "name": "Mississippi Basin", "subregions_list": "From the Great Lakes to Louisiana", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }