Leather Cloth List
A viewset for viewing and editing Leather Cloth.
GET /api/wf/leathers/?format=api&ordering=description
{ "count": 354, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/wf/leathers/?format=api&ordering=description&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 346, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"... a fragment of a leather-covered circular wooden shield has survived, bearing a painting of a mounted warrior. This was found in the ruins of the castle of Mug, east of Samarkand, and with it were many documents dating the destruction of the place to the eighth century - when the Persian prince who held it rebelled against the local Arab ruler.\" §REF§(Robinson 1967) Robinson, H. Russell. 1967. Oriental Armour. Walker and Co. New York.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 468, "name": "UzSogdi", "start_year": 604, "end_year": 711, "long_name": "Sogdiana - City-States Period", "new_name": "uz_sogdiana_city_states", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "General description:<br>The Sogdian City States Period, also referred to by the names of the principal cities of the age, Bukhara and Samarkand dates to between 604 and 711CE. The period ends with the conquest of the region by the Umayyad Dynasty.§REF§(Marshak 1996, 242) Marshak, B. I. 1996. ‘Sughd and Adjacent Regions’. In B. A. Litvinsky (ed.), Co-editors: Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Volume III. Paris: UNESCO. p.242<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD</a> §REF§<br>A number of City States rose to prominence in the Zarafshan and surrounding valleys, they formed alliances and competed amongst each other for control of the region .§REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 167) De la Vaissière, E. 2005. Sogdian Traders: a History. Translated by James Ward. Leiden; Boston: Brill. p.167 <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D</a> §REF§ Chef amongst these City States was Samarkand, which in the seventh century extended across the plateau of Afrasiab.§REF§(Marshak 1996, 244) Marshak, B. I. 1996. ‘Sughd and Adjacent Regions’. In B. A. Litvinsky (ed.), Co-editors: Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Volume III. Paris: UNESCO. p.244<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD</a> §REF§<br>The height of this period can be considered to have occurred in mid the 7th century CE when the city of Samarkand was at the peak of its economic and culture production, symbolized by the creation of the Afrasiab paintings. §REF§(Frumkin 1970, 124) Frumkin, G. 1970. Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia. Leiden;Koln. Brill. p.124 <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/48WCJTCC\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/48WCJTCC</a> §REF§<br>Although the City States had achieved de facto independence after the fall of the Western Kaghanate, they were nominally allied to the Chinese T’ang dynasty, however the dynasty did not meaningfully hinder the Arab incursions.§REF§(Marshak 1996, 242) Marshak, B. I. 1996. ‘Sughd and Adjacent Regions’. In B. A. Litvinsky (ed.), Co-editors: Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Volume III. Paris: UNESCO. p.242<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD</a> §REF§<br>Population and political organization:<br>Each city state was ruled by a king, conceived of as ‘first among equals’ who headed the administrative system which ran the state.§REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 167) De la Vaissière, E. 2005. Sogdian Traders: a History. Translated by James Ward. Leiden; Boston: Brill.p.167 <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D</a> §REF§ While there is clear evidence of a strong merchant class their relationship to the ruling elite remains unclear. §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 168-169) De la Vaissière, E. 2005. Sogdian Traders: a History. Translated by James Ward. Leiden; Boston: Brill. pp.168-169 <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D</a> §REF§<br>Although there are no precise population figures the archaeological evidence indicates that the number of settlements, and thus population, in the region reached its height during this period.§REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 103-4) De La Vaissiere, Etienne. 2005. Sogdian Traders: A History. [trans James Ward] Leiden: Brill.p.103-4 <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 19, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"6th-century guardsmen, Northern Wei or successors. This style of armour is believed to represent leather ... Note the cords which in this case appear to hold the breast plate into position.\" §REF§(Peers 1995, 36)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 258, "name": "CnNWei*", "start_year": 386, "end_year": 534, "long_name": "Northern Wei", "new_name": "cn_northern_wei_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Northern Wei dynasty (Tuoba or Bei Wei) unified northern China during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ Before unification under the Northern Wei, the northern region was ruled by the Sixteen Barbarian States that had risen up when the Western Jin fled to the south. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ The Northern Wei conquered Northern Yan and Northern Liang to unify the north. §REF§ (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong</a>. §REF§ During Northern Wei rule, Tuoba continued to expand its territory. By 439 CE the dynasty controlled Henan, Hebei, and parts of Shaanxi, Manchuria, Gansu, and Sichuan. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a> §REF§ At its peak the territory of the Northern Wei expanded from the Tarim Basin to the Yellow Sea, and from the northern steppe to edge of territory of the Southern dynasties. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ In 500 CE, the Northern Wei territory encompassed 1.7 million square kilometers. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet) §REF§ <br>The rulers of the Northern Wei belonged to the Tuoba tribe of the Xianbei northern steppe federation. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ The Tuoba language was close to Turkish, and the non-Han Chinese rulers were first seen as foreign invaders. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a> §REF§ In the late 400s the Tuoba Sinicized their customs, language, and government, and moved their capital to Luoyang. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ Buddhism was upheld as a state religion for most of the Northern Wei. The Buddhist caves of Yungang and Longmen were constructed during the period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ In the early 500s, Luoyang had over one thousand monasteries and number of mansions and large palaces. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8</a> §REF§ <br>The fall of the Northern Wei was due to a civil war caused by rebellions in garrisons in the northern frontier §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ The rival army factions spilt the dynasty into Eastern and Western Wei in 535 CE. §REF§ (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the Northern Dynasties, nobles and landowners often had vesting holdings with dependent servants and slaves who did not pay taxes. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX</a> §REF§ The Northern Wei government attempted to break up these large holdings to reduce the power of provincial nobles. The government deported over 400,000 dependent peasants to unused land near the first capital of Pingcheng. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty</a>. Accessed June 15, 2017. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8</a> §REF§ The Northern Wei also instituted an equal-fields system in which the state owned all land and individuals were given certain allotments for life. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8</a> §REF§ <br>In the late 400s, the Northern Wei moved the capital to Luoyang and began to create a more Chinese-style state. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ The Tuoba relied on Chinese civil servants to assist with governance. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684</a> §REF§ <br>The population of the Northern Wei dynasty was 32 million in 500 CE. §REF§ (Graff 2002, 127)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a> §REF§ The second Wei capital of Luoyang had a population of 600,000 at its peak. §REF§ (Graff 2002, 98)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA</a> §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T15:48:35.302300Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 101, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"After the formation of the Majapahit Dynasty, however, weapons and warfare underwent significant changes. The military dress completely evolved from the Indian to the East Javanese fashion.\"§REF§(Powell 2002, 325) John Powell. 2002. Weapons & Warfare: Ancient and medieval weapons and warfare (to 1500). Salem Press.§REF§ Indian military terms surviving in Javanese include 'armour, shield, helmet'.§REF§(Kumara 2007, 161) Sasiprabha Kumara. 2007. Sanskrit Across Cultures. Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. New Delhi.§REF§ The Borobudur reliefs depicted armour but do not specify which kinds.§REF§(Draeger 1972, 23) D F Draeger. 1972. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 50, "name": "IdMajap", "start_year": 1292, "end_year": 1518, "long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom", "new_name": "id_majapahit_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The kingdom of Majapahit covered much of the eastern half of the island of Java; it was founded in the late thirteenth century, when the war between king Waijaya and the ruler of Kediri concluded with the latter's loss, and it gradually faded from relevance between the end of the fifteenth century and the middle of the sixteenth, as the Sultanate of Demak established its control over the main sea trade routes. §REF§ (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 823-284) §REF§ Majapahit experienced its apogee under the rule of Hayam Wuruk, also known as Rajasanagara (1350-1389): during this time, the polity extended its sovereignty over the greater part of the Indonesian archipelago, as well much of the Malay peninsula. §REF§ (Coedès 1968, 239-240) §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Majapahit's king was assisted by a hierarchy of bureaucrats which reached down to the village level. §REF§ (Kinney 2003, 49) §REF§ Indeed, Majapahit was more centralized than preceding Indonesian polities, collecting revenue and products directly from its peripheries, as opposed to simply receiving them as tribute. §REF§ (Hall in Tarling 1993) §REF§ <br>Majapahit's population has been estimated to around 5 million, §REF§ (Christie 1991, 29) §REF§ , with a capital of about 200,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Miksic 2000, 116) §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 18, "name": "Central Java", "subregion": "Indonesia", "longitude": "110.403498000000", "latitude": "-6.985678000000", "capital_city": "Semarang", "nga_code": "JV", "fao_country": "Indonesia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 42, "name": "Archipelago", "subregions_list": "Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 49, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"Agatharcides reports that Ptolemy II equipped 100 cavalrymen hired in the Aegean with Kushite-style quilted armor.\"§REF§(Fischer-Bovet 2014, 131)§REF§ linen or leather e.g. thorax §REF§(Fischer-Bovet 2014, 135-138)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 109, "name": "EgPtol1", "start_year": -305, "end_year": -217, "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I", "new_name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Ptolemaic Kingdom (or Empire) was one of the successor states to the Macedonian Empire created by the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BCE. When Alexander died in Babylon in 323, Ptolemy, as one of his most favoured generals and bodyguards, was appointed satrap (governor) of Egypt, Libya and parts of Arabia. §REF§ (Hӧlbl 2001, 12, 14) Günther Hӧlbl. 2001. <i>A History of the Ptolemaic Empire</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The next few decades after 323 were characterized by incessant warfare between those who wished to maintain the unity of the Macedonian Empire, nominally still intact, §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ and those who aspired to rule their own kingdoms independently. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Ptolemy was firmly on the separatist side, and in 305 BCE he successfully declared himself king of Egypt. In doing so, he became Ptolemy I Soter ('the saviour') §REF§ (Thompson 2005, 113) Dorothy J. Thompson. 2005. 'The Ptolemies and Egypt', in <i>A Companion to the Hellenistic World</i>, edited by Andrew Erskine, 105-20. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ , founder of a powerful dynasty (sometimes known as the Lagides, after his father Lagos) §REF§ (Myśliwiec 2000, 179) Karol Myśliwiec. 2000. <i>The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E.</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ that was to rule Egypt for almost three centuries.<br>Ptolemy I and his successors had expansionist ambitions, seeking to carve out more and more territory for their new kingdom, often at the expense of the other kingdoms that had splintered from Alexander's empire, especially the Seleucid Kingdom of the Middle East. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ At its greatest extent, the Ptolemaic Empire reached as far south as Lower Nubia (southern Egypt), west to Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya), east to Cyprus, Syria, Phoenicia and Asia Minor (Turkey), and north into the Aegean. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169-71) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In the words of one researcher, Egypt became for the first time a true 'Mediterranean power' under its new Macedonian rulers. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The peak of the Ptolemaic period is generally considered to correspond to the reigns of the first three Ptolemies in the 3rd century BCE. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 11) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ We divide the kingdom into two polities: the first begins with Ptolemy I's accession in 305 and ends with the Battle of Raphia in 217. In this battle, Ptolemy IV defeated the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who had invaded Ptolemaic-controlled lands in Palestine. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 394) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The late 3rd and early 2nd centuries saw conflict within the ruling family and revolts by the Egyptian population, representing an 'age of crisis' between two periods of relative stability. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 165-66) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Our second polity runs from 217 up to the famous suicide of Cleopatra VII, the last ruler in the Ptolemaic line, and the Roman annexation of Egypt in 30 BCE. §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Newman 2015) Frances Stickney Newman. 2015. 'Cleopatra VII', in <i>Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia</i>. Ipswich, MA: Salem Press. Accessed 22 February 2017. §REF§ Overall, the Ptolemies were a successful dynasty: in concert with their expansionist policies, they managed to transform Egypt ‒ and the new city of Alexandria in particular ‒ into the cultural and economic centre of the Hellenistic world. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 173-75) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The Ptolemies were the longest-lived foreign dynasty ever to rule Egypt. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 159) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ They presided over a 'double society', portraying themselves as Graeco-Macedonian kings to the many resident Greeks and divine pharaohs to the 'native' Egyptian population. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 33, 37) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Greeks and Egyptians were subject to different judicial systems and Greeks tended to dominate the highest echelons of society. §REF§ (Manning 2003, 53, 131) J. G. Manning. 2003. <i>Land and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Structure of Land Tenure</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 409) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Alexandria, built as an ideal Greek-style Hellenistic city with its magnificent library, stadium, theatre, gymnasium and lighthouse, was always set apart from the rest of the country. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 174) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 400-01) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Over time, however, and especially from 200 BCE onwards, the boundaries between 'Greek' and 'Egyptian' became blurred. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171-73) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The chief aim of government was to draw as much revenue ‒ in money and in wheat ‒ as possible from the population, and for this reason the burden of taxation was heavy. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 78) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ The Ptolemies left many Pharaonic Egyptian institutions intact, such as the temple hierarchy with its priests and scribes. However, they used state functionaries and tax farmers to divert more and more wealth from temples, agricultural estates, especially those of granted to soldiers (known as cleruchs), and ordinary peasant farmers to the royal coffers. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 404-05) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Egypt under the Ptolemies also became more outward-looking, extending commercial and political power into the Levant, the Black Sea and the shores of the Mediterranean as far west as Sicily. §REF§ (Thompson and Buraselis 2013, 2-4) Dorothy J. Thompson and Kostas Buraselis. 'Introduction', in <i>The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power</i>, edited by Kostas Buraselis, Mary Stefanou and Dorothy J. Thompson, 1-18. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The population of Egypt during the Ptolemaic period has been estimated at around 4 million people in the 3rd century BCE, of which between 5 and 10 percent were Greeks. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2011, 135-37) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2011. 'Counting the Greeks in Egypt: Immigration in the First Century of Ptolemaic Rule', in <i>Demography in the Graeco-Roman World</i>, edited by C. Holleran and A. Pudsey, 135-54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The total population of the entire Ptolemaic Empire may have reached 7 million. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 149) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 50, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"Agatharcides reports that Ptolemy II equipped 100 cavalrymen hired in the Aegean with Kushite-style quilted armor.\"§REF§(Fischer-Bovet 2014, 131)§REF§ linen or leather e.g. thorax §REF§(Fischer-Bovet 2014, 135-138)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "EgPtol2", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30, "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "new_name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Ptolemaic Kingdom (or Empire) was one of the successor states to the Macedonian Empire created by the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BCE. When Alexander died in Babylon in 323, Ptolemy, as one of his most favoured generals and bodyguards, was appointed satrap (governor) of Egypt, Libya and parts of Arabia. §REF§ (Hӧlbl 2001, 12, 14) Günther Hӧlbl. 2001. <i>A History of the Ptolemaic Empire</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The next few decades after 323 were characterized by incessant warfare between those who wished to maintain the unity of the Macedonian Empire, nominally still intact, §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ and those who aspired to rule their own kingdoms independently. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Ptolemy was firmly on the separatist side, and in 305 BCE he successfully declared himself king of Egypt. In doing so, he became Ptolemy I Soter ('the saviour') §REF§ (Thompson 2005, 113) Dorothy J. Thompson. 2005. 'The Ptolemies and Egypt', in <i>A Companion to the Hellenistic World</i>, edited by Andrew Erskine, 105-20. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ , founder of a powerful dynasty (sometimes known as the Lagides, after his father Lagos) §REF§ (Myśliwiec 2000, 179) Karol Myśliwiec. 2000. <i>The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E.</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ that was to rule Egypt for almost three centuries.<br>Ptolemy I and his successors had expansionist ambitions, seeking to carve out more and more territory for their new kingdom, often at the expense of the other kingdoms that had splintered from Alexander's empire, especially the Seleucid Kingdom of the Middle East. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ At its greatest extent, the Ptolemaic Empire reached as far south as Lower Nubia (southern Egypt), west to Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya), east to Cyprus, Syria, Phoenicia and Asia Minor (Turkey), and north into the Aegean. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169-71) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In the words of one researcher, Egypt became for the first time a true 'Mediterranean power' under its new Macedonian rulers. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The peak of the Ptolemaic period is generally considered to correspond to the reigns of the first three Ptolemies in the 3rd century BCE. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 11) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ We divide the kingdom into two polities: the first begins with Ptolemy I's accession in 305 and ends with the Battle of Raphia in 217. In this battle, Ptolemy IV defeated the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who had invaded Ptolemaic-controlled lands in Palestine. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 394) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The late 3rd and early 2nd centuries saw conflict within the ruling family and revolts by the Egyptian population, representing an 'age of crisis' between two periods of relative stability. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 165-66) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Our second polity runs from 217 up to the famous suicide of Cleopatra VII, the last ruler in the Ptolemaic line, and the Roman annexation of Egypt in 30 BCE. §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Newman 2015) Frances Stickney Newman. 2015. 'Cleopatra VII', in <i>Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia</i>. Ipswich, MA: Salem Press. Accessed 22 February 2017. §REF§ Overall, the Ptolemies were a successful dynasty: in concert with their expansionist policies, they managed to transform Egypt ‒ and the new city of Alexandria in particular ‒ into the cultural and economic centre of the Hellenistic world. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 173-75) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The Ptolemies were the longest-lived foreign dynasty ever to rule Egypt. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 159) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ They presided over a 'double society', portraying themselves as Graeco-Macedonian kings to the many resident Greeks and divine pharaohs to the 'native' Egyptian population. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 33, 37) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Greeks and Egyptians were subject to different judicial systems and Greeks tended to dominate the highest echelons of society. §REF§ (Manning 2003, 53, 131) J. G. Manning. 2003. <i>Land and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Structure of Land Tenure</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 409) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Alexandria, built as an ideal Greek-style Hellenistic city with its magnificent library, stadium, theatre, gymnasium and lighthouse, was always set apart from the rest of the country. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 174) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 400-01) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Over time, however, and especially from 200 BCE onwards, the boundaries between 'Greek' and 'Egyptian' became blurred. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171-73) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The chief aim of government was to draw as much revenue ‒ in money and in wheat ‒ as possible from the population, and for this reason the burden of taxation was heavy. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 78) Michel Chauveau. 2000. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra</i>, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ The Ptolemies left many Pharaonic Egyptian institutions intact, such as the temple hierarchy with its priests and scribes. However, they used state functionaries and tax farmers to divert more and more wealth from temples, agricultural estates, especially those of granted to soldiers (known as cleruchs), and ordinary peasant farmers to the royal coffers. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 404-05) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Egypt under the Ptolemies also became more outward-looking, extending commercial and political power into the Levant, the Black Sea and the shores of the Mediterranean as far west as Sicily. §REF§ (Thompson and Buraselis 2013, 2-4) Dorothy J. Thompson and Kostas Buraselis. 'Introduction', in <i>The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power</i>, edited by Kostas Buraselis, Mary Stefanou and Dorothy J. Thompson, 1-18. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The population of Egypt during the Ptolemaic period has been estimated at around 4 million people in the 3rd century BCE, of which between 5 and 10 percent were Greeks. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2011, 135-37) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2011. 'Counting the Greeks in Egypt: Immigration in the First Century of Ptolemaic Rule', in <i>Demography in the Graeco-Roman World</i>, edited by C. Holleran and A. Pudsey, 135-54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The total population of the entire Ptolemaic Empire may have reached 7 million. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 149) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-04-18T13:32:02.471239Z", "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 27, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 225, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"Armour was apparently little used in the Western Sudan, though the Mossi cavalry for protective purposes assumed as much clothing as possible and provided leather and copper shields for the vulnerable parts of their mounts.\"§REF§(Smith 1989, 78) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.§REF§ \"In the late sixteenth century the Wolof cavalry were described as wearing a form of armour made from twisted cotton cloth which was resistant to arrows and spear thrusts.\"§REF§(Smith 1989, 78) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.§REF§ Padded clothing.§REF§(Smith 1989, 64) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "MlBaman", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861, "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "new_name": "ml_bamana_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Bamana Kingdom was founded in 1712 by Biton Kulibali §REF§ (Brett-Smith 2002, 940) Sarah C. Brett-Smith. 2002. 'Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art'. <i>American Anthropologist</i> 104 (3): 939-52. §REF§ and became part of the Tukulor (or Toucouleur) empire in 1861, when El Hajj Umar Tall seized the capital, Segu. §REF§ (Oloruntimehin 1972, 141) B. Olofunmilayo Oloruntimehin. 1972. The Segu Tukulor Empire. London: Longman. §REF§ This polity derives its name from its dominant ethnic group, §REF§ (Brett-Smith 2002, 939-952) Sarah C. Brett-Smith. 2002. 'Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art'. American Anthropologist 104(3): 939-952. §REF§ and because an alternative name for this group is 'Bambara', some sources will refer to the 'Bambara kingdom'. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 329-338) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta' in \"General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries\", edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot. London: Heinemann. §REF§ Because this was not the only Bambara kingdom at the time, it is often known as the Bambara Kingdom of Segu, from the name of its capital. French spellings of some of these names are also commonly found in the literature ‒ for example, Kulibali is sometimes spelled Coulibaly and Segu is sometimes spelled Segou. §REF§ (Brett-Smith 2002, 940) Sarah C. Brett-Smith. 2002. 'Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art'. <i>American Anthropologist</i> 104(3): 939-52. §REF§ <br>The kingdom was located in the Niger Bend, in West Africa. Between 1725 and 1751, under Biton's leadership, the Bamana of Segu conquered the whole of Bamana territory (including the Beledugu region, Jenne, and Timbuktu), and took Niani, the capital of the Mali Empire. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 333) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in <i>General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ After a series of weak successors, Ngolo Diarra (1766‒1790) strengthened the kingdom's hold over Timbuktu and Macina and conquered part of Dogon country. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 333-34) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in <i>General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ The Bamana Kingdom reached its greatest size under the rule of Monson Diarra (1792‒1808), who extended Segu power from San to Timbuktu, and from the Land of the Dogons to Kaarta. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 334) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in <i>General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ <br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The Bamana kingdom was ruled by single leader, known as the <i>faama</i>, who also led the army and was advised by an assembly of 40 men, including warriors and holy men. This assembly was based on a pre-existing Bamana institution known as <i>fla-n-ton</i> or <i>ton</i>, that is, an association of young men who had undergone circumcision together. With exceptions like Biton Kulibali and Ngolo Diarra, it seems that most <i>faama</i> were weak and ineffectual, at the mercy of the assembly. Stronger rulers, however, were able to govern with few constraints. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 333-34) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in <i>General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries</i>, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ <br>It is also worth noting that slavery was an important institution in the Bamana kingdom: the trade in slaves for guns and horses lay at the heart of the power of this nascent 'warrior-state'. §REF§ (Brett-Smith 2002, 941) Sarah C. Brett-Smith. 2002. 'Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art'. <i>American Anthropologist</i> 104 (3): 939-52. §REF§ <br>No official population estimates could be found for the Bamana Kingdom. However, the kingdom covered about half the territory of modern Mali, Guinea and Senegal, and the total population of these three countries in 1960 was around 12 million. §REF§ (World Bank 2016) World Bank, World DataBank. 2016. 'Mali: Population, total' [dataset]. Retrieved from <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=ML&view=chart\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=ML&view=chart</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (World Bank 2016) World Bank, World DataBank. 2016. 'Guinea: Population, total' [dataset]. Retrieved from <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=1960&locations=GN&start=1960&view=chart\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=1960&locations=GN&start=1960&view=chart</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (World Bank 2016) World Bank, World DataBank. 2016. 'Senegal: Population, total' [dataset]. Retrieved from <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=1960&locations=SN&start=1960&view=chart\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=1960&locations=SN&start=1960&view=chart</a>. §REF§ No reference could be found to a population crash between 1800 and 1960, but demographic growth was probably slower in the 19th century than in the 20th century. The population of the Bamana Kingdom in 1800 may have numbered three or four million people.<br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 232, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"Armour was apparently little used in the Western Sudan, though the Mossi cavalry for protective purposes assumed as much clothing as possible and provided leather and copper shields for the vulnerable parts of their mounts.\"§REF§(Smith 1989, 78) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.§REF§ \"In the late sixteenth century the Wolof cavalry were described as wearing a form of armour made from twisted cotton cloth which was resistant to arrows and spear thrusts.\"§REF§(Smith 1989, 78) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.§REF§ Padded clothing.§REF§(Smith 1989, 64) Robert Sydney Smith. 1989. Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-colonial West Africa. Second Edition. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 433, "name": "MlSegou", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1712, "long_name": "Segou Kingdom", "new_name": "ml_segou_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Almost nothing is known about the Segu (or Segou) Kingdom, the name we have chosen to use for the polity occupying the Niger Inland Delta from the mid-17th century CE to the foundation of the more well-known Bamana Kingdom in 1712. Neither oral traditions nor regional histories compiled in Timbuktu suggest the existence of a Bamana 'king' prior to the 17th century. However, in around 1650, a hunter and warrior called Kaladian Kulibali (or Coulibaly) drew on the indigenous male age-grade associations known as <i>tòn</i> to become the ruler of the first Bamana state, §REF§ (Bortolot 2003) Alexander Ives Bortolot. 2003. 'The Bamana Ségou State'. <i>Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History</i>, <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bama_1/hd_bama_1.htm\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bama_1/hd_bama_1.htm</a>. Accessed 23 February 2017. §REF§ which briefly included Timbuktu. §REF§ (MacDonald 2014, 129) Kevin C. MacDonald. 2014.<i> '\"A chacun son Bambara\", encore une fois</i>: History, Archaeology and Bambara Origins'. In <i>Ethnic Ambiguity and the African Past: Materiality, History, and the Shaping of Cultural Identities</i>, edited by Francois G. Richard and Kevin C. MacDonald, 119-44. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The Bamana before the mid-17th century were probably a 'stateless society' — specifically, they may have been divided into independent villages who only banded together in response to a threat. §REF§ (MacDonald 2014, 129) Kevin C. MacDonald. 2014. '\"A Chacoun son Bambara, encore une fois\": History, Archaeology and Bambara Origins' in \"Ethnic Ambiguity and the African Past: Materiality, History, and the Shaping of Cultural Identities\", edited by Francois G. Richard and Kevin C. MacDonald. Walnut Creek, California: Left Coast Press. §REF§ After a brief period of integration under Kaladian Kulibali, centralized power weakened after his death and an oligarchy of regional rulership by his sons and their successors held sway for some time. §REF§ (MacDonald 2014, 129) Kevin C. MacDonald. 2014. '\"A Chacoun son Bambara, encore une fois\": History, Archaeology and Bambara Origins' in \"Ethnic Ambiguity and the African Past: Materiality, History, and the Shaping of Cultural Identities\", edited by Francois G. Richard and Kevin C. MacDonald. Walnut Creek, California: Left Coast Press. §REF§ By the time Biton Kulibali rose against the status quo and founded his own Bamana Kingdom in 1712, it seems that the Bamana region was divided into small communities, each ruled by a gerontocracy. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 332-33) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in <i>General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries</i> edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ However, details are hazy, and mostly derived from oral traditions, so the relationship between Kaladian's successors' loose oligarchy and the gerontocracies of the early eighteenth century is not very clear. We are not certain, for example, whether the former gave way to the latter, or whether the latter existed within the context of the former. No population estimates for the Segu Kingdom could be found in the literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 60, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"Bell-Beakers are usually found with other weapons: daggers, and archery equipment such as triangular barbed-flint arrowheads and wristguards of fine stone. The first users of Bell-Beakers did not practice metallurgy, and the earliest daggers were made of flint; though they soon came to be cast in copper, and then bronze. This martial image was perhaps completed by leather jerkins and later by woven fabrics, held by a belt with an ornamental bone ring to secure it; such figures are schematically represented on the later statue menhirs of the west Alpine region.\" §REF§(Sherratt in Cunliffe 1994, 251)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 447, "name": "FrBeakr", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2000, "long_name": "Beaker Culture", "new_name": "fr_beaker_eba", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "In the late 3rd millennium BCE, new forms of material culture spread across the former megalithic zone of Neolithic Europe. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 55) McIntosh, J. 2006. <i>Handbook to Life in Prehistoric Europe.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B5R92FJH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B5R92FJH</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 250) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. \"The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC.\" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) <i>The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe</i>: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 252) Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Janusz Kruk. 2002. “Late Neolithic Crises, Collapse, New Ideologies, and Economies, 3500/3000-2200/2000 BC.” In European Prehistory: A Survey, edited by Sarunas Milisauskas, 247-69. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ</a>. §REF§ The Beaker, or Bell-Beaker, §REF§ (Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 248) Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Janusz Kruk. 2002. “Late Neolithic Crises, Collapse, New Ideologies, and Economies, 3500/3000-2200/2000 BC.” In European Prehistory: A Survey, edited by Sarunas Milisauskas, 247-69. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ</a>. §REF§ phenomenon is named after a characteristic drinking vessel, which had an inverted bell shape and was decorated with incisions. §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 250-251) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. \"The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC.\" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) <i>The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe</i>: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM</a>. §REF§ Other features of this cultural 'package' include individual burials in round mounds, sets of weapons and metals, and other precious items. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ <br>The phenomenon started in what is now the Netherlands and expanded into Britain, Brittany, southern Spain and then into most of continental France, Belgium, Switzerland and Western Europe in the form of small pockets of activity. §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 246) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. \"The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC.\" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) <i>The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe</i>: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 214) Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Janusz Kruk. 2002. “Late Neolithic Crises, Collapse, New Ideologies, and Economies, 3500/3000-2200/2000 BC.” In European Prehistory: A Survey, edited by Sarunas Milisauskas, 247-69. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Beaker society was organized into myriad stratified polities of varying sizes. Some were composed of small, dispersed communities with 10 to 20 domestic units, §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 25) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ but larger groups could gather into fortified settlements: Los Millares in Spain was home to 1000-1500 people. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ The Beaker culture is also associated with demographic growth in Europe, as the small-scale polities moved into previously marginal lands. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ <br>The spread of this material culture has been interpreted as evidence for a wide set of circulation networks, fuelled by elite demand for prestige goods. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ The items may have been exchanged on the occasion of social rituals consolidating the power of emerging leaders. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ In this interpretation, the archaeologically visible spread of Beaker culture would not be tied to immigration but to the emergence of mobile ways of life, §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 250-251) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. \"The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC.\" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) <i>The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe</i>: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM</a>. §REF§ with independent leaders affirming their belonging to a wider cultural sphere through the consumption and display of valuable items. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ <br>Beaker people built on the legacy of their early Neolithic predecessors, reusing and modifying ceremonial structures such as Stonehenge. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 28) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ However they distinguished themselves through their burial customs, preferring single burials in grave pits to passage and gallery graves. In certain areas, such as the Iberian Peninsula or southern France, they occasionally reused ancient megalithic structures. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 28-29) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-04-15T15:39:50.374042Z", "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 131, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"But, while engaged in fighting they put on a kind of armour made of leather, which covered their body completely, leaving only the face and the feet.\" §REF§(Ramayanna 1986, pp. 126-127)§REF§ According to Nuniz, soldiers of Vijayanagar 'were all armed each after his own fashion, the archers and musketeers with their quilted tunics, and shield-men with swords and poignards in their girdles. Their shields are so large that there is no need for armour to protect the body, which is completely covered. Their horses were in full clothing. The men wore doublets, and had weapons in their hands. And on their heads were headpieces after the manner of their doublets, quilted with cotton.'§REF§(Eraly 2015) Abraham Eraly. 2015. The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate. Penguin.§REF§ Razzak says soldiers in Kerala had a dagger and a cowhide shield.§REF§(Eraly 2015) Abraham Eraly. 2015. The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate. Penguin.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "InVijay", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646, "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "new_name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Vijayanagara Empire ruled over southern India: specifically, it comprised an area roughly equivalent to the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 329) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. <i>A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present</i>. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ This polity could be said to have been founded with the establishment of the fortified city of Vijayanagara itself in 1340, and it fragmented into many smaller polities roughly three hundred years later, due to both civil wars and incursions from Islamic polities to the North. §REF§ (Stein 1990, 2, 13) Burton Stein. 1990. <i>The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Under Vijayanagara rule, architecture flourished (many temples were built or rebuilt, and the first permanent non-religious buildings, including royal palaces, were constructed), trade and agriculture boomed, new towns were founded, and new notions of legal rights emerged. §REF§ (Stein 1990, xii, 2) Burton Stein. 1990. <i>The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>As with most preceding South Indian polities, the Vijayanagara ruler sat at the top of both administrative and military hierarchies. §REF§ (Majumdar, Raychaudhuri and Datta 1974, 373) R. C. Majumdar, H. C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta. 1974. <i>An Advanced History of India</i>. Delhi: Macmillan India. §REF§ He was assisted at court by several ministers, and in the provinces by governors. §REF§ (Majumdar, Raychaudhuri and Datta 1974, 373-74) R. C. Majumdar, H. C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta. 1974. <i>An Advanced History of India</i>. Delhi: Macmillan India. §REF§ <br>Assuming that the entire population of the Indian subcontinent at this time equalled 150 million, it seems reasonable to estimate that the population of the Vijayanagara empire was about 25 million. §REF§ (Stein 1990, 44) Burton Stein. 1990. <i>The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Burton Stein estimates that the city of Vijayanagara at its height in the 16th century had over 100,000 inhabitants, §REF§ (Stein 1990, 75) Burton Stein. 1990. <i>The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ while Carla Sinopoli believes the population could have been over 250,000. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2000, 370) Carla Sinopoli. 2000. 'From the Lion Throne: Political and Social Dynamics of the Vijayanagara Empire'. <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i> 43 (3): 364-98. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 14, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " \"Crew and horses could be armoured with tough rhinoceros hide, either in the form of scales swen onto a cloth backing, or made into one-piece sleeveless coats like the leather 'buff coats' of seventeenth century Europe\" §REF§(Peers 2013, 16)§REF§ Inferred from Zhou/Shang: there is no evidence that the Zhou were armed differently than the Shang (evidence of helmets, shields, and leather armor used in the Shang).§REF§(Peers 2013, 10)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "leather_cloth", "leather_cloth": "present", "polity": { "id": 245, "name": "CnJinSA", "start_year": -780, "end_year": -404, "long_name": "Jin", "new_name": "cn_jin_spring_and_autumn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Spring and Autumn period was a period of the Eastern Zhou dynasty in which strong vassal states competed for dominance. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Spring and Autumn Period.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/event/Spring-and-Autumn-Period\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/event/Spring-and-Autumn-Period</a>. Accessed June 5, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2EVWH4P\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2EVWH4P</a>. §REF§ When King You of Zhou was killed by an allied force of Quan Rong barbarians and the state of Shen, King Ping moved the capital to Luoyang in 770 BCE and founded the Eastern Zhou dynasty. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 545) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ The weak Eastern Zhou state was responsible for diplomacy and rituals, while governmental authority lay in the hands of large vassal states. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Spring and Autumn Period.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/event/Spring-and-Autumn-Period\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/event/Spring-and-Autumn-Period</a>. Accessed June 5, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2EVWH4P\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2EVWH4P</a>. §REF§ There were 15 major vassal states in the Spring and Autumn period, but by the mid-7th century BCE the region was dominated by the Qi, Jin, Qin, and Chu states. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 559) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ The period is marked by constant warfare between different states. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ <br>The Spring and Autumn period takes its name from the Confucian book <i>Chunqiu</i>, which chronicles events from 722 to 429 BCE. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Spring and Autumn Period.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.britannica.com/event/Spring-and-Autumn-Period\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.britannica.com/event/Spring-and-Autumn-Period</a>. Accessed June 5, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2EVWH4P\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2EVWH4P</a>. §REF§ During this time, the moral values of Confucius helped bring China into the 'Axial Age'. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 545) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ The use of bronze agricultural tools became more widespread in China and there is evidence of the use of steel and iron in the middle and late Spring and Autumn period. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ Coinage appeared in this period, and there are some indications that individuals could own land. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ <br>The Jin state dominated the Spring and Autumn period from 636 to 628 BCE. Duke Xian of Jin (676-651 BCE) conquered 16 small states in modern Shanxi. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 559) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ His son, Duke Wen, was given the title of <i>ba</i> ('senior' or 'hegemon') §REF§ (Lewis 2000, 365) Lewis, Mark Edward. 2000. “The City-State in Spring-and-Autumn China.” In A Comparative Study of Thirty City-State Cultures: An Investigation Conducted by the Copenhagen Polis Centre, edited by Mogens Herman Hansen. Copenhagen: The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DXXZV8CS\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DXXZV8CS</a>. §REF§ by the Zhou king after defeating the encroaching state of Chu in 632 BCE. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 559) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ <br>The Jin state covered an estimated 160,000 square kilometres. The state was located in modern Shanxi, §REF§ (Theobald 2010) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “The Feudal State of China.” Chinaknowledge.de <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-jin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-jin.html</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8735F2AW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8735F2AW</a>. §REF§ and extended east and north from the Yellow River. §REF§ (Eno 2010) Eno, Robert. 2010. Spring and Autumn China. Indiana University, History G380, Class Text Readings. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iub.edu/~g380/1.7-Spring_Autumn_Narrative-2010.pdf\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iub.edu/~g380/1.7-Spring_Autumn_Narrative-2010.pdf</a> Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/32FGZ2UI\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/32FGZ2UI</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The multi-state Spring and Autumn system changed the feudal structure of China. In the Western Zhou period, the political elite was made up of kings, feudal lords, and hereditary ministers. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ In the Spring and Autumn period, a class of knights and warriors became the political ruling class. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ Intellectuals served as both government officials and 'cultural carriers'. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 549) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ States became more centralized as the central government continued to weaken. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ <br>In the <i>ba</i> system, first institutionalized in 651 BCE, the Zhou king bestowed the title of <i>ba</i> on the ruler of the vassal state that represented the Zhou court in war. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 562) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ However, this system of political organization began to weaken in the 6th century BCE. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 562) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW</a>. §REF§ <br>Substantiated estimates for the population of the Jin state are lacking.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-22T14:21:57.861969Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }