Donkey List
A viewset for viewing and editing Donkeys.
GET /api/wf/donkeys/
{ "count": 352, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/wf/donkeys/?page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 235, "year_from": -1300, "year_to": -701, "description": " Coded as inferred present as it is a later source, but due to all the domestic animals being owned by a household, in which all males were nomadic warriors and would very likely have used domestic animals as pack animals. Sima's records state \" Most of their domestic animals are horses, cows, sheep, and they also have rare animals such as camels, donkeys, mules, hinnies and other equines known as t’ao-t’u and tien-hsi. They move about according to the availability of water and pasture, have no walled towns or fixed residences, nor any agricultural activities, but each of them has a portion of land.\" §REF§Nicola Di Cosmo. 2002. Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, p. 272§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "donkey", "donkey": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "MnXngnE", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300, "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "new_name": "mn_hunnu_early", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Orkhon Valley is located on either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory in the millennium preceding the establishment of the Xiongnu empire, that is, 1400-300 BCE. Unfortunately, very little is known about this period, §REF§ (Yu 1990, 118) §REF§ though Chinese historians note that at the very end of this period the Xiongnu were one of three major steppe confederations in Mongolia more widely. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 220) §REF§ <br>No population estimates could be found specifically for the an average independent political unit in the Orkhon Valley at this time, though it is worth noting that, according to McEvedy and Jones (1978), the total population of Siberia and Mongolia in this period did not exceed 400,000. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 160-156) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London. §REF§ Similarly, no information could be found on political organization at this time.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 24, "name": "Orkhon Valley", "subregion": "Mongolia", "longitude": "102.845486000000", "latitude": "47.200757000000", "capital_city": "Karakorum", "nga_code": "MN", "fao_country": "Mongolia", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 9, "name": "Mongolia", "subregions_list": "Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 236, "year_from": -700, "year_to": -300, "description": " Coded as inferred present as it is a later source, but due to all the domestic animals being owned by a household, in which all males were nomadic warriors and would very likely have used domestic animals as pack animals. Sima's records state \" Most of their domestic animals are horses, cows, sheep, and they also have rare animals such as camels, donkeys, mules, hinnies and other equines known as t’ao-t’u and tien-hsi. They move about according to the availability of water and pasture, have no walled towns or fixed residences, nor any agricultural activities, but each of them has a portion of land.\" §REF§Nicola Di Cosmo. 2002. Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, p. 272§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "donkey", "donkey": "present", "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "MnXngnE", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300, "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "new_name": "mn_hunnu_early", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Orkhon Valley is located on either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory in the millennium preceding the establishment of the Xiongnu empire, that is, 1400-300 BCE. Unfortunately, very little is known about this period, §REF§ (Yu 1990, 118) §REF§ though Chinese historians note that at the very end of this period the Xiongnu were one of three major steppe confederations in Mongolia more widely. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 220) §REF§ <br>No population estimates could be found specifically for the an average independent political unit in the Orkhon Valley at this time, though it is worth noting that, according to McEvedy and Jones (1978), the total population of Siberia and Mongolia in this period did not exceed 400,000. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 160-156) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London. §REF§ Similarly, no information could be found on political organization at this time.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 24, "name": "Orkhon Valley", "subregion": "Mongolia", "longitude": "102.845486000000", "latitude": "47.200757000000", "capital_city": "Karakorum", "nga_code": "MN", "fao_country": "Mongolia", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 9, "name": "Mongolia", "subregions_list": "Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 64, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Not mentioned in the literature.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "donkey", "donkey": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 449, "name": "FrHallA", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -900, "long_name": "Hallstatt A-B1", "new_name": "fr_hallstatt_a_b1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Hallstatt culture, named after an archaeological site in Austria and traditionally divided into four phases, was the main cultural complex in Western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It coincides with the North Alpine complex, extending over modern-day central and southern Germany, northern Italy, and Switzerland. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Across Europe, thousands of small-scale polities coexisted in the Hallstatt A period (c. 1100-1000 BCE); §REF§ (CNRS-ENS 2017) CNRS-ENS. 2017. “Atlas de L’âge Du Fer.” Accessed July 7. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/patlas\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/patlas</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HUKZMF9J\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HUKZMF9J</a>. §REF§ the average independent political unit controlled a zone with a radius of 20 kilometres. §REF§ (Brun 2007, 381) Brun, Patrice. 2007. “Une Période de Transition Majeure En Europe: De La Fin Du IVe Au Début Du IIe s. Av. J.-C.(La Tène B2 et C).” In <i>La Gaule Dans Son Contexte Européen Aux IV e et III e Siècle Avant Notre Ère</i>, edited by Christine Mennessier-Jouannet, Anne-Marie Adam, and Pierre-Yves Milcent, 377-84. Lattes: Edition de l’Association pour le Développement de l’Archéologie en Languedoc-Roussillon. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ</a>. §REF§ Most settlements identified archaeologically consisted of dispersed farms gravitating around a significant monument, a village or a fortification. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 15) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ <br>At this time, elites had control over long-distance exchange networks, which encouraged the production of bronze objects such as helmets. §REF§ (Allen 2007, 119) Allen, Stephen. 2007. <i>Lords of Battle: The World of the Celtic Warrior.</i> Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F9D9PI8A\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F9D9PI8A</a>. §REF§ These elites also distinguished themselves in death, as they were buried in elaborate complexes of tumuli, which could include protective walls, stone markers and even four-wheeled wagons. §REF§ Pare, Christopher FE. 1992. <i>Wagons and Wagon-Graves of the Early Iron Age in Central Europe.</i> Vol. 35. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XPKX7SNP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XPKX7SNP</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 66, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Not mentioned in the literature.'", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "donkey", "donkey": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 451, "name": "FrHallC", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -600, "long_name": "Hallstatt C", "new_name": "fr_hallstatt_c", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Hallstatt culture, named after an archaeological site in Austria and traditionally divided into four phases, was the main cultural complex in Western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It coincides with the North Alpine complex, extending over modern-day central and southern Germany, northern Italy, and Switzerland. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the Hallstatt C period, which lasted from around 700 to 600 BCE, §REF§ (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In <i>Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ</a>. §REF§ Hallstatt polities became increasingly integrated into the Mediterranean economy. Although the settlement pattern was still rather decentralized, §REF§ (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In <i>Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ</a>. §REF§ this period saw the proliferation of fortified sites. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 15) Brun, Patrice. 1995. \"From chiefdom to state organization in Celtic Europe.\" In <i>Celtic chiefdom, Celtic state. New Directions in Archaeology</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 13-25. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ These elevated settlements, covering between one and ten hectares, sprang up at strategic locations such as the confluence of rivers. They were often enclosed by earthworks and walls and associated with burial mounds and tumuli. §REF§ (Arnold and Gibson 1995, 7) Arnold, Bettina, and D. Blair Gibson. 1995. “Introduction: Beyond the Mists: Forging an Ethnological Approach to Celtic Studies.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and Gibson, 1-7. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/583XXU9Z\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/583XXU9Z</a>. §REF§ <br>Another important development of the Hallstatt C period was an increasing diversity in material culture, especially in ceramic and metal objects, as seen in the elaborate bronze hoards dating to this period. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 15) Brun, Patrice. 1995. \"From chiefdom to state organization in Celtic Europe.\" In <i>Celtic chiefdom, Celtic state. New Directions in Archaeology</i>, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 13-25. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ The variability of artefact types may indicate the fragmentation of cultural zones and the creation of myriad princely territories with an average radius of c. 30 kilometres. §REF§ (Brun 2007, 381) Brun, Patrice. 2007. “Une Période de Transition Majeure En Europe: De La Fin Du IVe Au Début Du IIe s. Av. J.-C.(La Tène B2 et C).” In <i>La Gaule Dans Son Contexte Européen Aux IV e et III e Siècle Avant Notre Ère</i>, edited by Christine Mennessier-Jouannet, Anne-Marie Adam, and Pierre-Yves Milcent, 377-84. Lattes: Edition de l’Association pour le Développement de l’Archéologie en Languedoc-Roussillon. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ</a>. §REF§ It is possible that a four-tiered administrative hierarchy developed during the Hallstatt C period. §REF§ (Arnold and Gibson 1995, 6-7) Arnold, Bettina, and D. Blair Gibson. 1995. “Introduction: Beyond the Mists: Forging an Ethnological Approach to Celtic Studies.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and Gibson, 1-7. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/583XXU9Z\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/583XXU9Z</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 29, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " descriptions of raids make no mention of animals accompanying warriors", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "donkey", "donkey": "absent", "polity": { "id": 197, "name": "EcJivaL", "start_year": 1831, "end_year": 1931, "long_name": "Shuar - Ecuadorian", "new_name": "ec_shuar_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The forested foothills of the Andes, near the border between Ecuador and Peru, have long been inhabited by the Shuar, subsistence horticulturalists living in autonomous residential hamlets. There are many Shuar groups, but here we focus specifically on the Ecuadorian group commonly known simply as 'Shuar'. Europeans - specifically, Spaniards - first encountered the Shuar in the 16th century and soon imposed tributes, which the Shuar paid, in increasing amounts, until they rebelled in 1599, driving the Spanish out of the region. Indeed, the Shuar were able to ward off outside interference up until 1930, just as they were able to avoid being subjugated by the Inca. In 1930, Catholic missionaries persuaded the Ecuadorian government to provide a reservation for the Shuar. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Authority among the Shuar was mostly informal and local, and resided in men referred to as <i>unyä</i> ('big' or 'old' men) or <i>kakaram</i> ('powerful ones'). These were usually renowned warriors or shamans, but they in fact acquired their reputation by being old enough to have grandchildren, as well as through their friendliness, honesty and generosity in dealing with others. The unyä or kakaram were believed to be able to curse to death anyone who angered them. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ <br>The scholarly literature does not provide population estimates, even for the more recent period. Indeed, writing in the 1920s, the ethnographer Fritz W. Up de Graff declared that obtaining accurate statistics relating to the Shuar was an 'impossible task' due to their migratory habits and commitment to concealing their true numbers from potential enemies. §REF§ (Up de Graff 1923, 192-93) Up de Graff, Fritz W. 1923. Head Hunters of the Amazon: Seven Years of Exploration and Adventure. London: H. Jenkins. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 32, "name": "Lowland Andes", "subregion": "Amazonia", "longitude": "-77.674190401400", "latitude": "-2.895375197160", "capital_city": "Logrono", "nga_code": "EC", "fao_country": "Ecuador", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 31, "name": "Amazonia", "subregions_list": "Brazil, Guyanas, plus Amazonian parts of bordering states", "mac_region": { "id": 6, "name": "South America and Caribbean" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 350, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Code inferred from Abbasid Caliphate§REF§(Nicolle 1982, 20) Nicolle, D. 1982. The Armies of Islam, 7th-11th Centuries. Osprey Publishing.§REF§ which occupied Yemen between 751-868 CE.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "donkey", "donkey": "present", "polity": { "id": 365, "name": "YeWarLd", "start_year": 1038, "end_year": 1174, "long_name": "Yemen - Era of Warlords", "new_name": "ye_warlords", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Era of the Warlords was a quasi-polity that existed in Tihama coastal plains between 1067 and 1091 CE, primarily characterized by a two-power tension between the Najahid dynasty and the Sulayhid dynasty. The Najahid dynasty was founded by two former slaves of the predated Ziyadid dynasty, while the Sulyahids occupied the highlands until their ruler ‘Ali bin Mahdi brought a denouement to the Najahid power in the mid-12th century. §REF§ (McLaughlin 2007, 159) Daniel McLaughlin. 2007. Yemen. Bradt Travel Guides Ltd. Chalfont St Peter §REF§ In 1086 CE, Mukarram of the Sulyahids instituted a new coinage called “Maliki Dinars.” §REF§ (van Donzel 1994, 427) E J van Donzel. 1994. Islamic Desk Reference. BRILL. Leiden. §REF§ When the Najahid rulers were driven out into refuge, many plotted their return to take back their territory in Tihama, but were defeated at the end. §REF§ (Margariti 2013, 216) Roxani Margariti. An Ocean of Islamds: Islands, Insularity, and Historiography of the Indian Ocean. Peter N Miller ed. 2013. The Sea: Thalassography and Historiography. University of Michigan Press. Ann Arbor. §REF§ <br>No population estimates could be found in the consulted literature; however, the polity territory was estimated to be between 250,000 and 350,000 square kilometers. §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 99) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. §REF§ <br>The settlement hierarchy was between three- and five-tiered with a capital followed by towns and villages. The administrative levels were between four and five, with the political organization headed by a king and queen and followed by court and provincial governments. §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 65-74) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 12, "name": "Yemeni Coastal Plain", "subregion": "Arabia", "longitude": "43.315739000000", "latitude": "14.850891000000", "capital_city": "Sanaa", "nga_code": "YE", "fao_country": "Yemen", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 44, "name": "Arabia", "subregions_list": "Arabian Peninsula", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 352, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": "Used as pack animals appears by around 7000 BC onward §REF§(Leverani 2014, 41) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": "2023-07-20T19:28:37.307099Z", "modified_date": "2023-07-20T19:28:37.307113Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Donkey", "donkey": "present", "polity": { "id": 162, "name": "TrHatOK", "start_year": -1650, "end_year": -1500, "long_name": "Hatti - Old Kingdom", "new_name": "tr_hatti_old_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The early period of the Hittite Kingdom lasted from about 1650 to 1500 BCE and is known as the Old Kingdom. The polity emerged after a group of Indo-European speakers migrated c. 2000 BCE from either the Causasus or the Bosphorus and Dardanelles and settled on a high plateau in western Anatolia known as Hatti. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 8) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Stephens, Jr. 1979, 46) Stephens, Jr., W. Richard. 1979. “The Rise of the Hittite Empire: A Comparison of Theories on the Origin of the State.” Mid-American Review of Sociology 4 (1): 39-55. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T</a>. §REF§ The immigrants mingled with the indigenous people of Hatti and adopted many of their beliefs and customs. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 8) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Before the mid-1st millennium BCE, the central Anatolian region was divided into many city-states. §REF§ (Stephens, Jr. 1979, 41-42) Stephens, Jr., W. Richard. 1979. “The Rise of the Hittite Empire: A Comparison of Theories on the Origin of the State.” Mid-American Review of Sociology 4 (1): 39-55. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T</a>. §REF§ Gradually, however, the Hittites began to conquer the neighbouring cities, founding a strong state around 1650 BCE. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 8) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Stephens, Jr. 1979, 41049) Stephens, Jr., W. Richard. 1979. “The Rise of the Hittite Empire: A Comparison of Theories on the Origin of the State.” Mid-American Review of Sociology 4 (1): 39-55. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T</a>. §REF§ Labarna I (17th century BCE) was the first known Hittite king. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 34) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§ <br>The king was the supreme ruler and military commander, a chief judge and a priest in Hittite society. §REF§ (Bryce 2007, 11) Bryce, Trevor A. 2007. Hittite Warrior. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/38EMV897\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/38EMV897</a>. §REF§ He entrusted the management of major cities and provinces to officials who were often directly answerable to him, §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 16) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§ and could bestow important military positions on members of his own family. §REF§ (Bryce 2007, 8-9) Bryce, Trevor A. 2007. Hittite Warrior. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/38EMV897\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/38EMV897</a>. §REF§ Vassal rulers were obliged to pay tribute to the king and take an oath of allegiance. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 43) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 2, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "donkey", "donkey": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "AfGhurd", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215, "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "new_name": "af_ghur_principality", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Ghurids were an Islamic Turkish dynasty that ruled the Persian Principality of Ghur between 1025-1215 CE. The peak of their power occurred with their defeat of the Ghaznavid Empire in 1186 CE. For the majority of its existence the Ghurid rulers were in a state of vassalage of the Ghaznavids and the sultans of the Seljuk Turks, to whom they sent tribute. §REF§ (Bosworth 2012) Bosworth, Edmund C. 2012. GHURIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids</a> §REF§ <br>While \"the early history of the Sansabani family had been full of feuds and disputes\" the successful rebellion against the Ghaznavids resulted in a legacy of at least a degree of cooperation. §REF§ (Bosworth 2012) Edmund C Bosworth. 2012. GHURIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids</a> §REF§ Bosworth (2012) talks of a polity with two power-bases: one at the newly-acquired Firuzkuh, at Gazna; the other at Bamian. §REF§ (Bosworth 2012) Edmund C Bosworth. 2012. GHURIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids</a> §REF§ <br>When Mo'ezz-al-Din, conquered Gazna he took the title of sultan. §REF§ (Bosworth 2012) Edmund C Bosworth. 2012. GHURIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids</a> §REF§ Government was based on the Persian model with a professional vizier who oversaw civil affairs. We also know of a treasurer (khazin), an overseer of public morality and inspector of the markets (muhtasib), and qadis who enforced the Shari'a law. §REF§ (Jackson 2003, 25) Peter Jackson. 2003. The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Literary and artistic activities under the Ghurids were Persian in style and literature was sponsored by Ghurid sultans. §REF§ (Bosworth 2012) Bosworth, Edmund C. 2012. GHURIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids</a> §REF§ One of the major cultural achievements of the Ghurid period was the building of the double-helical Minaret of Jam c1190 CE.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-10-23T16:25:02.654099Z", "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 8, "name": "Afghanistan", "subregions_list": "Afghanistan", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 42, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "donkey", "donkey": "present", "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "EgNKRam", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070, "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "new_name": "eg_new_k_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Ramesside era of the New Kingdom (1293-1070 BCE) is known as the last of the great native Egyptian states, when Egypt lost its foreign territories and the system of centralized government broke down once again. In contrast to the Thutmosid Period, which was dominated by an administration located in Upper Egypt, the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties (known as the Rammeside period) were based in the Nile Delta region of Lower Egypt - first at Memphis, then at a new grand capital at Per-Ramesses.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The New Kingdom had a centralized administration that split the country under two viziers, who oversaw the Northern Tchety and Southern Tchety. Within these large units were nomarchs of nomes, village chiefs and local constables. §REF§ (Brier and Hobbs 2008, 72) Bob Brier and A. Hoyt Hobbs. 2008. <i>Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians</i>. 2nd ed. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§ The important local officials were directly responsible to the bureau of the vizier, and they had to travel back and forth between the vizier's seat and their local posts in the course of their duties. §REF§ (van den Boorn 1988, 115-16) G. P. F. van den Boorn. 1988. <i>The Duties of the Vizier: Civil Administration in the Early New Kingdom</i>. London: Kegan Paul International. §REF§ The draw of the centre both indicates the degree of power of the centralized administration and shows that the regions had the necessary administrative complexity to run themselves without the presence of their local ruler. §REF§ (van den Boorn 1988, 115-16) G. P. F. van den Boorn. 1988. <i>The Duties of the Vizier: Civil Administration in the Early New Kingdom</i>. London: Kegan Paul International. §REF§ <br>Governmental administration during the later New Kingdom Dynasties was 'characterized by the growing strength of hereditary office', and the position of provincial nobles grew more secure. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 192, 229) David O'Connor. 1983. 'New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period, 1552-664 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ During this period, the god Amun, the central deity of the priests at Thebes, became merged with the sun-god Ra and as Amun-Ra was worshipped throughout Egypt, including at Memphis. Rites connected with this 'king of gods' served to legitimize the rule of the Egyptian king on earth, who was believed to be the 'bodily son of Amun'. §REF§ (Van Dijk 2000, 298-99) Jacobus Van Dijk. 2003. 'The Amarna Period and the Later New Kingdom', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 265-307. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Doxey 2001, 69-70) D. M. Doxey. 2001. 'Priesthood', in <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3</i>, edited by D. B. Redford, 69-70. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Government grants were bestowed on temples in return for 'formal blessings' for state activities. §REF§ (Abu Bakr 1981, 102) A. Abu Bakr. 1981. 'Pharaonic Egypt', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>, edited by G. Mokhtar, 84-111. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ However, the pharaoh's power to appoint the high priest was 'nominal', especially from the time of Ramesses III onwards, §REF§ (Van Dijk 2000, 298-300) Jacobus Van Dijk. 2003. 'The Amarna Period and the Later New Kingdom', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 265-307. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ and the priests of Karnak in Upper Egypt became powerful hereditary rulers who acted independently of the administration at Per-Ramesses in the delta. §REF§ (Hassan 1993, 568) Fekri Hassan. 1993. 'Town and Village in Ancient Egypt: Ecology, Society and Urbanization', in <i>The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns</i>, edited by Thurstan Shaw, Paul Sinclair, Bassey Andah and Alex Okpoko, 551-69. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>The city of Per-Ramesses, established around 1270 CE, had an immense population of about 250,000, §REF§ (Moreno García 2014, 11) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2014. 'Invaders or Just Herders? Libyans in Egypt in the Third and Second Millennia BCE'. <i>World Archaeology</i> 46: 610-23. §REF§ while the kingdom supported a peak total population of more than three million. §REF§ (Eyre 2010, 303) Christopher Eyre. 2010. 'The Economy: Pharaonic', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 291-308. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 65, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Not mentioned in the literature.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "donkey", "donkey": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 450, "name": "FrHallB", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -700, "long_name": "Hallstatt B2-3", "new_name": "fr_hallstatt_b2_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Hallstatt culture, named after an archaeological site in Austria and traditionally divided into four phases, was the main cultural complex in Western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It coincides with the North Alpine complex, extending over modern-day central and southern Germany, northern Italy, and Switzerland. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In the Hallstatt B period (c. 1000-800 BCE), §REF§ (CNRS-ENS 2017) CNRS-ENS. 2017. “Atlas de L’âge Du Fer.” Accessed July 7. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/patlas\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/patlas</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HUKZMF9J\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HUKZMF9J</a>. §REF§ the North Alpine cultural complex gradually became incorporated in trade networks dominated by Greek and Etruscan settlements. Hallstatt chiefs mediated the supply of Mediterranean prestige goods in their own spheres of exchange. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ <br>The average scale of integration of Hallstatt B polities extended to include land within a roughly 25-kilometre radius. §REF§ (Brun 2007, 381) Brun, Patrice. 2007. “Une Période de Transition Majeure En Europe: De La Fin Du IVe Au Début Du IIe s. Av. J.-C.(La Tène B2 et C).” In <i>La Gaule Dans Son Contexte Européen Aux IV e et III e Siècle Avant Notre Ère</i>, edited by Christine Mennessier-Jouannet, Anne-Marie Adam, and Pierre-Yves Milcent, 377-84. Lattes: Edition de l’Association pour le Développement de l’Archéologie en Languedoc-Roussillon. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ</a>. §REF§ The maximal territorial extent of polities could be as much as 1000 square kilometres, as in the case of Wessex. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ <br>In this period, a three-tiered settlement hierarchy can be discerned archaeologically. Previous units fragmented: new autonomous communities polarized around fortified sites, the proportion of which increased. Tumuli became a more noticeable feature in the Hallstatt B landscape, and iron-working activity became much more prevalent. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 15) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }