Composite Bow List
A viewset for viewing and editing Composite Bows.
GET /api/wf/composite-bows/
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Warfare in Pre-British India - 1500 BCE to 1740 CE. Routledge. London.§REF§ <i>Possibly introduced toward the end of this period?</i>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "composite_bow", "composite_bow": "absent", "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "TrBrzMD", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700, "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "new_name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 310, "year_from": -1800, "year_to": -1800, "description": " Composite bows were present in nearby Mesopotamia, even Eastern Anatolia had become separated from this culture by around 2500 BCE: from about 2500 BC ‘From that moment onward the history of the site and of the region was completely separated from the history of the Syro-Mesopotamian areas and that of the southernmost region of the Middle/Upper Euphrates Valley; it now began to gravitate toward the eastern Anatolian world.’§REF§Marcella Frangipane, ‘Arslantepe-Malatya: A Prehistoric and Early Historic Center in Eastern Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 984§REF§ \"The composite bows spread into Palestine around 1800 BCE and were introduced into Egypt by the Hyksos in 1700 BCE.\"§REF§(Roy 2015, 20) Kaushik Roy. 2015. Warfare in Pre-British India - 1500 BCE to 1740 CE. Routledge. London.§REF§ <i>Possibly introduced toward the end of this period?</i>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "composite_bow", "composite_bow": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "TrBrzMD", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700, "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "new_name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 311, "year_from": -1700, "year_to": -1700, "description": " Composite bows were present in nearby Mesopotamia, even Eastern Anatolia had become separated from this culture by around 2500 BCE: from about 2500 BC ‘From that moment onward the history of the site and of the region was completely separated from the history of the Syro-Mesopotamian areas and that of the southernmost region of the Middle/Upper Euphrates Valley; it now began to gravitate toward the eastern Anatolian world.’§REF§Marcella Frangipane, ‘Arslantepe-Malatya: A Prehistoric and Early Historic Center in Eastern Anatolia’, The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman, 2011, p. 984§REF§ \"The composite bows spread into Palestine around 1800 BCE and were introduced into Egypt by the Hyksos in 1700 BCE.\"§REF§(Roy 2015, 20) Kaushik Roy. 2015. Warfare in Pre-British India - 1500 BCE to 1740 CE. Routledge. London.§REF§ <i>Possibly introduced toward the end of this period?</i>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "composite_bow", "composite_bow": "present", "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "TrBrzMD", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700, "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "new_name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 11, "name": "Konya Plain", "subregion": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "longitude": "32.521164000000", "latitude": "37.877845000000", "capital_city": "Konya", "nga_code": "TR", "fao_country": "Turkey", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 43, "name": "Anatolia-Caucasus", "subregions_list": "Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 254, "year_from": -1300, "year_to": -501, "description": " \"The first composite bow with bone reinforced 'ears', a major development, may have been used around Lake Baikal, c.500 BC. Despite many individual external differences, across the steppe, and across time, the composite bow would remain essentially uniform in construction method.\" §REF§(Karasulas 2004, 19)§REF§ \"Composite bows are known from both Mesopotamia and the Great Steppe from the III millennium BCE. The Scythian bow was different from the Mesopotamian one primarily in its overall dimensions - it was smaller so that it could be used from the horseback. At the same time, self bows were also in use, but because of their large size they were not suitable for use by horse riders.\"§REF§Sergey A Nefedov, RAN Institute of History and Archaeology, Yekaterinburg, Russia. Personal Communication to Peter Turchin. January 2018.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "composite_bow", "composite_bow": "absent", "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "MnXngnE", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300, "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "new_name": "mn_hunnu_early", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Orkhon Valley is located on either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory in the millennium preceding the establishment of the Xiongnu empire, that is, 1400-300 BCE. Unfortunately, very little is known about this period, §REF§ (Yu 1990, 118) §REF§ though Chinese historians note that at the very end of this period the Xiongnu were one of three major steppe confederations in Mongolia more widely. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 220) §REF§ <br>No population estimates could be found specifically for the an average independent political unit in the Orkhon Valley at this time, though it is worth noting that, according to McEvedy and Jones (1978), the total population of Siberia and Mongolia in this period did not exceed 400,000. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 160-156) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London. §REF§ Similarly, no information could be found on political organization at this time.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 24, "name": "Orkhon Valley", "subregion": "Mongolia", "longitude": "102.845486000000", "latitude": "47.200757000000", "capital_city": "Karakorum", "nga_code": "MN", "fao_country": "Mongolia", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 9, "name": "Mongolia", "subregions_list": "Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 255, "year_from": -500, "year_to": -300, "description": " \"The first composite bow with bone reinforced 'ears', a major development, may have been used around Lake Baikal, c.500 BC. Despite many individual external differences, across the steppe, and across time, the composite bow would remain essentially uniform in construction method.\" §REF§(Karasulas 2004, 19)§REF§ \"Composite bows are known from both Mesopotamia and the Great Steppe from the III millennium BCE. The Scythian bow was different from the Mesopotamian one primarily in its overall dimensions - it was smaller so that it could be used from the horseback. At the same time, self bows were also in use, but because of their large size they were not suitable for use by horse riders.\"§REF§Sergey A Nefedov, RAN Institute of History and Archaeology, Yekaterinburg, Russia. Personal Communication to Peter Turchin. January 2018.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "composite_bow", "composite_bow": "present", "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "MnXngnE", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300, "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "new_name": "mn_hunnu_early", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Orkhon Valley is located on either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory in the millennium preceding the establishment of the Xiongnu empire, that is, 1400-300 BCE. Unfortunately, very little is known about this period, §REF§ (Yu 1990, 118) §REF§ though Chinese historians note that at the very end of this period the Xiongnu were one of three major steppe confederations in Mongolia more widely. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 220) §REF§ <br>No population estimates could be found specifically for the an average independent political unit in the Orkhon Valley at this time, though it is worth noting that, according to McEvedy and Jones (1978), the total population of Siberia and Mongolia in this period did not exceed 400,000. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 160-156) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London. §REF§ Similarly, no information could be found on political organization at this time.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 24, "name": "Orkhon Valley", "subregion": "Mongolia", "longitude": "102.845486000000", "latitude": "47.200757000000", "capital_city": "Karakorum", "nga_code": "MN", "fao_country": "Mongolia", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 9, "name": "Mongolia", "subregions_list": "Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 89, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "composite_bow", "composite_bow": "present", "polity": { "id": 66, "name": "GrCrGeo", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -710, "long_name": "Geometric Crete", "new_name": "gr_crete_geometric", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The eleventh century BCE marks the beginning of radical changes in southern Greece generally as well as Crete specifically, largely resulting from the invasion from the North of the Dorians §REF§ (Whitley 1998, 27-39) J. Whitley. 1998. 'From Minoans to Eterocretans: the Praisos region 1200-500 BC,' in <i>Post-Minoan Crete: Proceedings of the First Colloquium on Post-Minoan Crete held by the British School at Athens and the Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 10-11 November 1995</i>, edited by W.G. Cavanagh and M. Curtis, M. (eds), London: British School at Athens. §REF§ Overall, however, this period is relatively poorly understood, with no written sources and few archaeological finds. Most likely, Cretans mainly dedicated themselves to farming and pastoralism. Writing disappeared and artistic expression became more abstracted and geometrical. Things started to change in the eighth century, when trade routes were revitalized, and Cretans were able to capitalize on the island's premier location in the Eastern Mediterranean. And the trade in artefacts and products was accompanied by the exchange of new ideas and technologies. §REF§ Kostis Christakis, pers. comm., May 2016 §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Not much is known about either the island's population numbers at the time, or its political organization. In terms of population, very few settlements have been excavated, and none of these have yielded enough data for a credible estimate; in terms of political organization, it is likely that elite families were in charge but not much else could be said. §REF§ Kostis Christakis, pers. comm., May 2016 §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 88, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "composite_bow", "composite_bow": "present", "polity": { "id": 65, "name": "GrCrFPa", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -1000, "long_name": "Final Postpalatial Crete", "new_name": "gr_crete_post_palace_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "With the fall or weakening of the great Eastern Mediterranean powers--the Hittites, the Assyrians, Egypt--there is evidence for a correspondingly \"troubled\" phase in Crete's prehistory. Most notably, the population moved from the coast to the hinterland, suggesting the coasts were no longer safe. Minoan culture continued to exist in some form, but contacts with the rest of the world were greatly reduced §REF§ (Hallager 2010, 157-158) Erik Hallager. 2010. 'Crete' in <i>The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean</i>, edited by E.H. Cline. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Firth estimated the Cretan population during Late Minoan IIIA and IIIB periods (1400-1200 BCE) at 110,000 people §REF§ (Firth 1995, 33-55) R. Firth. 1995. 'Estimating the population of Crete during LM IIIA/B'. <i>Minos</i> 29-30: 33-55. §REF§ There are no estimates for the Final Post Palatial Period; settlement patterns, however, point to a considerable population decrease, especially during the 1100-1000 BCE period. §REF§ (Rehak and Younger 2001, 458) P. Rehak and J.G. and Younger. 2001. 'Neopalatial, Final palatial, and Postpalatial Crete', in <i>Aegean Prehistory. A Review</i>, edited by Tracey Cullen. Boston: Archaeological Institute of America. §REF§ §REF§ (Borgna 2003, 153-183) Elisabetta Borgna. 2003. 'Regional settlement patterns in Crete at the end of LBA'. <i>SMEA</i> 45: 153-83. §REF§ Similarly, not much is known about political organization at this time. §REF§ K. Christakis, pers. comm., May 2016 §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 31, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "composite_bow", "composite_bow": "present", "polity": { "id": 268, "name": "CnYuan*", "start_year": 1271, "end_year": 1368, "long_name": "Great Yuan", "new_name": "cn_yuan_dyn", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "After a series of military campaigns, Kublai Khan, leader of the large and powerful Mongolian empire, took control of China and established a new Mongolian dynasty based in the territory of the former Jin empire. This polity, ruling from China, was to be known as the Yuan Dynasty, and lasted from 1271 CE until its eventual demise in 1368. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 603) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ <br>The Yuan Dynasty was a continuation of the Mongolian Empire. However, Genghis Khan's empire had by this time fractured into rival Khanates, including the Chagatai Khanate, the Ilkhanate, and the Golden Horde. Although the Yuan Emperor was the nominal overlord of these regions, the Khanates were effectively independent. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 603) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ The Yuan's core territory covered North China, Manchuria, and the Inner Mongolian steppe, §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 603) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ but military campaigns saw it expand over most of China, Tibet and into Korea. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 604) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ However, their attempt to conquer Japan was thwarted by a typhoon. §REF§ (Morgan 2007, 107) David Morgan. 2007. <i>The Mongols</i>. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Eventually, internal dissensions between the various <i>ordos</i> (political units) and local rebellions dissolved the fabric of the empire and led to its disaggregation. §REF§ (Franke and Twitchett 1994, 26) Herbert Franke and Denis Crispin Twitchett. 1994. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368</i>, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Yuan Empire was a sociopolitical blend of Chinese and Mongolian features. At the top of the administrative, religious and military hierarchy sat the emperor, ruling under the traditional Chinese 'Mandate of Heaven'. §REF§ Connie Cook, Seshat North China Workshop, 2016. §REF§ Kublai Khan was the embodiment of a strong central authority, but the balance he created was only maintained for about 30 years after his death before emperors started to lose internal and external control over the Yuan dominion. §REF§ (Buell 2003, 62) Paul D. Buell. 2003. <i>Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ Administratively, the empire was modelled on its Jin predecessor, and ruled through a variety of entities such as the Secretariat, the Military Affairs Bureau, and the Censorate. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 606) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ However, it also retained Mongolian institutions, such as the <i>keshig</i> (imperial guard) and the <i>ordos</i>, which corresponded to the palace-tents, household and staff of various princes and lords. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 606) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ These <i>ordos</i> acted as separate vassal states under nominal imperial control. §REF§ (Franke and Twitchett 1994, 26) Herbert Franke and Denis Crispin Twitchett. 1994. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368</i>, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In terms of territorial administration, the Yuan Dynasty comprised 12 provinces. §REF§ (Buell 2003, 60) Paul D. Buell. 2003. <i>Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire</i>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ In total, the population of Yuan China may have been between 60 §REF§ (Mote 1994, 618) Frederick W. Mote. 1994. 'Chinese Society under Mongol Rule, 1215-1368', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368</i>, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 616-64. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and 85 million. §REF§ 《中國人口史》（第三卷）遼宋金元時期.第390頁.吳松弟.復旦大學出版社.2000年12月出版.《中國人口史》共六卷，由葛劍雄教授主編. §REF§ <br>Communications across the vast empire were facilitated by an elaborate postal system, described in detail by Marco Polo. There were 1,400 relay stations located every 25 to 50 kilometres along the main axes of communication, and messengers could cover up to 400 kilometres a day to relay urgent news. §REF§ (Rossabi 1994, 450) Morris Rossabi. 1994. 'The Reign of Khubilai Khan', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368</i>, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Resources could be controlled by the state thanks to the use of paper currency, issued in proportion to silver reserves, and a commercial tax on the government-sponsored <i>ortoq</i> merchant class. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 606) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ Another significant source of wealth was the salt monopoly, which had reached 80 percent of the government's income by 1320. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 606) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ <br>Kublai oversaw the construction of a new capital, known as Dadu to the Chinese, Khanbalik to the Turks and Daidu to the Mongols, on the site of modern Beijing. §REF§ (Rossabi 1994, 454) Morris Rossabi. 1994. 'The Reign of Khubilai Khan', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368</i>, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ At its height, Dadu may have had 600,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 123) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ The location of this city in the vicinity of the northern frontier enabled Kublai to retain control over the Mongolian homeland. §REF§ (Rossabi 1994, 454) Morris Rossabi. 1994. 'The Reign of Khubilai Khan', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368</i>, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Its architecture and design embodied the syncretism of Mongolian and Chinese influences: it featured two inner walls and an imperial city, but also had avenues wide enough for nine horsemen to gallop abreast, and Mongolian yurts flourished in its parks. §REF§ (Rossabi 1994, 454) Morris Rossabi. 1994. 'The Reign of Khubilai Khan', in <i>The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368</i>, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The court was cosmopolitan and although Kublai followed Tantric Buddhism, he also had Confucian advisors §REF§ Vesna Wallace 2017, personal communication. §REF§ and welcomed foreigners such as the Polo family. The Yuan were patrons of education through state schools and temples; state organizations sponsored the study of Confucianism, astronomy, historiography and medicine. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 606) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ <br>Yuan China encompassed a territory that fluctuated between roughly 11 and 24 million square kilometres, supporting a population of between 60 and 85 million people. §REF§ 《元史‧卷五八‧志第十‧地理一》，記載：「十三年，平宋，全有版圖。二十七年，又籍之，得戶一千一百八十四萬八百有奇。於是南北之戶總書於策者，一千三百一十九萬六千二百有六，口五千八百八十三萬四千七百一十有一，而山澤溪洞之民不與焉。」 §REF§ §REF§ 《中國人口史》（第三卷）遼宋金元時期.第390頁.吳松弟.復旦大學出版社.2000年12月出版.《中國人口史》共六卷，由葛劍雄教授主編。 §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-04T16:00:20.553956Z", "home_nga": { "id": 20, "name": "Middle Yellow River Valley", "subregion": "North China", "longitude": "112.517587000000", "latitude": "34.701825000000", "capital_city": "Luoyang", "nga_code": "CN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 58, "name": "North China", "subregions_list": "North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 94, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "composite_bow", "composite_bow": "present", "polity": { "id": 64, "name": "GrCrPPa", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -1200, "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete", "new_name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "At the end of the Late Minoan IIIA2 period, the destruction of the \"palace\" at Knossos, the oldest monumental building compound of the island, marked the end of a political authority which had controlled most of Crete during the Late Minoan II and Late Minoan IIIA periods. Regional centers, once secondary capitals under the Knossian control, subsequently regained a degree of independence. Regional elites exerted their authorities over the land by adopting social instruments and ideological strategies which turned out to be very similar to those used by the previous Knossian power, possibly including the use of Linear B script for bureaucratic purposes. §REF§ (Borgna 2003, 153-183) Elisabetta Borgna. 2003. 'Regional settlement patterns in Crete at the end of LBA'. <i>SMEA</i> 45: 153-83. §REF§ Things changed in the eleventh century, with the fall of the great Eastern Mediterranean powers and a resulting period of instability in both the region generally and the island specifically. §REF§ (Hallager 2010, 157-158) Erik Hallager. 2010. 'Crete' in <i>The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean</i>, edited by E.H. Cline. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Firth estimated the Cretan population during Late Minoan IIIA and IIIB periods (1400-1200 BCE) at 110,000 people §REF§ (Firth 1995, 33-55) R. Firth. 1995. 'Estimating the population of Crete during LM IIIA/B'. <i>Minos</i> 29-30: 33-55. §REF§ As for political organization, the supreme leader of the state was the king (<i>wanax</i>), presided over the political, economic and religious hierarchy, though possibly lacked military and judicial authority §REF§ (Shelmerdine and Bennet 2008, 292-295) C.W. Shelmerdine and J. Bennet. 2008. 'Mycenaean states. Economy and administration,' in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, edited by C.W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 57, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "composite_bow", "composite_bow": "present", "polity": { "id": 200, "name": "EgThebL", "start_year": -1069, "end_year": -747, "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period", "new_name": "eg_thebes_libyan", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Theban-Libyan Period in Egypt (Twenty-first, Twenty-second and Twenty-third Dynasties, 1069-747 BCE) §REF§ (Baines 2017) John Baines. January 2017. Seshat workshop. Oxford. §REF§ represents another time of decentralization in Egypt and, together with the subsequent Kushite period, makes up the Third Intermediate Period. §REF§ (Pagliari 2012, 183) Giulia Pagliari. 2012. 'Function and Significance of Ancient Egyptian Royal Palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite Period: A Lexicographical Study and Its Possible Connection with the Archaeological Evidence'. PhD thesis, University of Birmingham. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The governments at Memphis and Thebes followed the traditional 'intermediate period' pattern of rulers (pharaoh at Memphis, high priest at Thebes) who ran a bureaucratic system managed by a vizier and overseers of departments. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 337) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ However, the vizier and overseers of the treasury and granaries were unable to project their influence over the regions §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 337) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ and Egypt in this period is best characterised as 'a federation of semi-autonomous rulers, nominally subject (and often related) to an overlord-king'. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 338) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The Egyptian pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty (1077-943 BCE), based at Memphis near the Nile Delta, §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 327) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ served only as nominal heads of state for the whole of Egypt; §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 270) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ a formal agreement ceded control of Middle and Upper Egypt to priest-rulers at Thebes. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 232) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 270) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The priests, who doubled as military commanders, derived their right to rule from the oracles of the 'Theban triad' of gods, Amun, Mut and Khons. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 327-28) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The Twenty-first Dynasty pharaohs, perhaps in an effort to provide greater legitimacy for their rule over Upper Egypt, turned Tanis in the delta into a 'holy city', building royal tombs within temples built for the Theban triad. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 327) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The most powerful pharaoh of this period, however, was the first Libyan ruler and founder of the Twenty-second Dynasty, Shoshenq I (r. 945-924 BCE). He embarked on an 'ambitious royal building programme' and attempted to regain control of the entirety of Egypt, curtail Thebes' independence, and expand into the Levant. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 329) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The high point did not last long. The perennial problem of Upper Egyptian independence eventually led to the formal division of the state, an imaginative if drastic solution that created a parallel Twenty-third Dynasty based in Leontopolis, or perhaps Herakleopolis. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 233) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The new dynasty was enjoined to reassert control of the south, allowing the Twenty-second Dynasty rulers to concentrate on Lower Egypt. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 233) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ This did not work: by the time of Shoshenq III (r. 827-773 CE), the Twenty-second Dynasty pharaohs could barely even control the north: 'numerous local rulers - particularly in the Delta - became virtually autonomous and several declared themselves kings'. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 330) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Unfortunately, due to scant evidence, there are no reliable population estimates for this time.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }