Token List
A viewset for viewing and editing Tokens.
GET /api/sc/tokens/
{ "count": 293, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/tokens/?page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 277, "year_from": 1100, "year_to": 1599, "description": "Cowries: “The first major imports of moneta cowries into West Africa via the Atlantic arrived in Benin from the Indian Ocean via Lisbon in 1515. The Benin political class, centered on the monarch, monopolized commercial activities with the European traders during the sixteenth century, and it was in that kingdom that we have the first evidence of the monetization of cowries in the Bight of Benin. From there, the monetization of cowries spread westwards following the sequence of African/European trading ports on the coast so that by the end of sixteenth century, cowry money had been adopted in Allada and was spreading to the Yoruba hinterlands. The impetus for the pan-regional adoption of cowry currency came from the imperial expansion of Old Oyo and Dahomey, the expansion of the local economy, and the high tide of cowry imports via coastal ports in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The sense that domestic economy in the Bight of Benin was almost entirely monetized by the seventeenth century is conveyed by Thomas Phillips, an English trader, who observed: \"when they go to market [in Whydah] to buy anything they bargain for so many cowries ... and without these shells they can purchase nothing.\"56 The state, rather than Atlantic commerce itself, was responsible for the monetization of cowries by levying taxes and toll payments in cowries.’”§REF§Ogundiran, Akinwumi. “Of Small Things Remembered: Beads, Cowries, and Cultural Translations of the Atlantic Experience in Yorubaland.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 35, no. 2/3, 2002, pp. 427–57: 438–439. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/57IPD2M5/collection§REF§ “Exports from the Slave Coast amounted to 5,000 captives per year in the 1680s, and peaked at 10,000 per year from the 1690s through the 1710s. Goods received in exchange for captives were predominantly textiles and cowry shells (Cypraea moneta), which originated in the Indian Ocean and were the principle currency in the region. However, other goods such as iron and brass bars, beads, guns and spirits are also mentioned in period texts. Additionally, beads, clay tobacco pipes, ceramic vessels, alcohol bottles and various other trinkets are documented at contemporary archaeological sites. The introduction of European and Asian manufactured goods had a significant impact on communities on the Slave Coast.” §REF§Monroe, J. Cameron. “Urbanism on West Africa’s Slave Coast: Archaeology Sheds New Light on Cities in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade.” American Scientist, vol. 99, no. 5, 2011, pp. 400–09: 403. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/E5WA63Z2/collection§REF§ “First, with regard to payment in cowry shells, Dapper had said that when cowries were available a third of the price was paid in them, but that when they were dear other goods were given instead, whereas according to Barbot normally half the price was paid in cowries, but when they were dear this might be reduced to a third or a quarter and the rest paid in other goods.” §REF§Law, Robin. “Jean Barbot as a Source for the Slave Coast of West Africa.” History in Africa, vol. 9, 1982, pp. 155–73: 161. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/N4D6NU7J/collection§REF§ Manillas and foreign currency (Dutch stuivers) are both mentioned here, but it’s unclear whether they were being used within Allada as currency, or only by the Dutch and/or Dahomeans: “In Allada in the mid-seventeenth century Dutch traders allowed the crews of the hammocks hired for journeys from the coast to the capital the sum of four brass manillas (equivalent to fifty cowries) per day for their food and drink. Since hammockmen were normally hired in crews of six, this suggests an allowance of eight or nine cowries daily per man. There are no comparable data on subsistence rates for free labourers later in the seventeenth century, but the cost of the diet of slaves awaiting embarkation was estimated by the English fort at Offra in 1681 at twenty cowries daily, and by Bosman at Whydah in the late 1690s at the even higher rate of two stuivers, equivalent to 2- English pence, or 32 cowries (perhaps an approximation for thirty) daily; and such slaves were certainly maintained at a more rudimentary level than free workers - on 'bread and water', as Bosman himself expressed it. Phillips in 1694, it may be noted, reports the cost of a single meal of a dough ball (or 'cankey') with meat (beef or dog) stew as eight or nine cowries. There had clearly been some increase in living costs, therefore, during the second half of the seventeenth century.” §REF§Law, Robin. “Posthumous Questions for Karl Polanyi: Price Inflation in Pre-Colonial Dahomey.” The Journal of African History, vol. 33, no. 3, 1992, pp. 387–420: 411–412. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/VJ69UHEQ/collection§REF§ “In the later stages of the nineteenth-century cowrie inflation, part of the loss of value of cowries in Dahomey was taken up by increasing the number of cowries in a string, the number of strings in a head remaining 50. Thus, at Whydah, instead of 40 cowries to the string there were 50; at Alladah and Abomey, 46. The 'royal' string at this period was about 40.” §REF§Johnson, M. (1970). The Cowrie Currencies of West Africa. Part I. The Journal of African History, 11(1), 17–49: 45. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/XZMB8INB/collection§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-08-24T10:45:15.029862Z", "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Token", "token": "A~P", "polity": { "id": 659, "name": "ni_allada_k", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1724, "long_name": "Allada", "new_name": "ni_allada_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 275, "year_from": 1100, "year_to": 1750, "description": "The following information strictly applies to the period immediately preceding colonisation. \"Cowries and cotton bands were used as currency.\"§REF§(Englebert 2018: 15) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/52JWRCUI/collection.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-08-24T10:36:46.857866Z", "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Token", "token": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 620, "name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1897, "long_name": "Mossi", "new_name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 278, "year_from": 1600, "year_to": 1724, "description": " Cowries: “The first major imports of moneta cowries into West Africa via the Atlantic arrived in Benin from the Indian Ocean via Lisbon in 1515. The Benin political class, centered on the monarch, monopolized commercial activities with the European traders during the sixteenth century, and it was in that kingdom that we have the first evidence of the monetization of cowries in the Bight of Benin. From there, the monetization of cowries spread westwards following the sequence of African/European trading ports on the coast so that by the end of sixteenth century, cowry money had been adopted in Allada and was spreading to the Yoruba hinterlands. The impetus for the pan-regional adoption of cowry currency came from the imperial expansion of Old Oyo and Dahomey, the expansion of the local economy, and the high tide of cowry imports via coastal ports in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The sense that domestic economy in the Bight of Benin was almost entirely monetized by the seventeenth century is conveyed by Thomas Phillips, an English trader, who observed: \"when they go to market [in Whydah] to buy anything they bargain for so many cowries ... and without these shells they can purchase nothing.\"56 The state, rather than Atlantic commerce itself, was responsible for the monetization of cowries by levying taxes and toll payments in cowries.’”§REF§Ogundiran, Akinwumi. “Of Small Things Remembered: Beads, Cowries, and Cultural Translations of the Atlantic Experience in Yorubaland.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 35, no. 2/3, 2002, pp. 427–57: 438–439. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/57IPD2M5/collection§REF§ “Exports from the Slave Coast amounted to 5,000 captives per year in the 1680s, and peaked at 10,000 per year from the 1690s through the 1710s. Goods received in exchange for captives were predominantly textiles and cowry shells (Cypraea moneta), which originated in the Indian Ocean and were the principle currency in the region. However, other goods such as iron and brass bars, beads, guns and spirits are also mentioned in period texts. Additionally, beads, clay tobacco pipes, ceramic vessels, alcohol bottles and various other trinkets are documented at contemporary archaeological sites. The introduction of European and Asian manufactured goods had a significant impact on communities on the Slave Coast.” §REF§Monroe, J. Cameron. “Urbanism on West Africa’s Slave Coast: Archaeology Sheds New Light on Cities in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade.” American Scientist, vol. 99, no. 5, 2011, pp. 400–09: 403. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/E5WA63Z2/collection§REF§ “First, with regard to payment in cowry shells, Dapper had said that when cowries were available a third of the price was paid in them, but that when they were dear other goods were given instead, whereas according to Barbot normally half the price was paid in cowries, but when they were dear this might be reduced to a third or a quarter and the rest paid in other goods.” §REF§Law, Robin. “Jean Barbot as a Source for the Slave Coast of West Africa.” History in Africa, vol. 9, 1982, pp. 155–73: 161. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/N4D6NU7J/collection§REF§ Manillas and foreign currency (Dutch stuivers) are both mentioned here, but it’s unclear whether they were being used within Allada as currency, or only by the Dutch and/or Dahomeans: “In Allada in the mid-seventeenth century Dutch traders allowed the crews of the hammocks hired for journeys from the coast to the capital the sum of four brass manillas (equivalent to fifty cowries) per day for their food and drink. Since hammockmen were normally hired in crews of six, this suggests an allowance of eight or nine cowries daily per man. There are no comparable data on subsistence rates for free labourers later in the seventeenth century, but the cost of the diet of slaves awaiting embarkation was estimated by the English fort at Offra in 1681 at twenty cowries daily, and by Bosman at Whydah in the late 1690s at the even higher rate of two stuivers, equivalent to 2- English pence, or 32 cowries (perhaps an approximation for thirty) daily; and such slaves were certainly maintained at a more rudimentary level than free workers - on 'bread and water', as Bosman himself expressed it. Phillips in 1694, it may be noted, reports the cost of a single meal of a dough ball (or 'cankey') with meat (beef or dog) stew as eight or nine cowries. There had clearly been some increase in living costs, therefore, during the second half of the seventeenth century.” §REF§Law, Robin. “Posthumous Questions for Karl Polanyi: Price Inflation in Pre-Colonial Dahomey.” The Journal of African History, vol. 33, no. 3, 1992, pp. 387–420: 411–412. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/VJ69UHEQ/collection§REF§ “In the later stages of the nineteenth-century cowrie inflation, part of the loss of value of cowries in Dahomey was taken up by increasing the number of cowries in a string, the number of strings in a head remaining 50. Thus, at Whydah, instead of 40 cowries to the string there were 50; at Alladah and Abomey, 46. The 'royal' string at this period was about 40.” §REF§Johnson, M. (1970). The Cowrie Currencies of West Africa. Part I. The Journal of African History, 11(1), 17–49: 45. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/XZMB8INB/collection§REF§ ", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Token", "token": "present", "polity": { "id": 659, "name": "ni_allada_k", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1724, "long_name": "Allada", "new_name": "ni_allada_k", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 276, "year_from": 1751, "year_to": 1897, "description": " The following information strictly applies to the period immediately preceding colonisation. \"Cowries and cotton bands were used as currency.\"§REF§(Englebert 2018: 15) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/52JWRCUI/collection.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Token", "token": "present", "polity": { "id": 620, "name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1897, "long_name": "Mossi", "new_name": "bf_mossi_k_1", "polity_tag": "POL_AFR_WEST", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 99, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "token", "token": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 125, "name": "IrPart1", "start_year": -247, "end_year": 40, "long_name": "Parthian Empire I", "new_name": "ir_parthian_emp_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The first ruler of the Parthian dynasty was Arsaces who lived at about 240 BCE §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 16) JAcob Neusner. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. §REF§ but the founder of the Parthian Empire (171 BCE - 40 CE period) was Mithridates I, who initiated the Parthian conquest of Persia and Babylonia from the Seleucids. §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 16) Jacob Neusner. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. §REF§ The Parthians were essentially \"a military aristocracy\" §REF§ (Dabrowa 2012, 180) Edward Dabrowa. The Arcasid Empire. in Daryaee, Touraj ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. §REF§ that ruled the many different peoples (e.g. Persians, Greeks, Jews, Babylonians) who lived in Persia and Babylonia.<br>Parchments and ostra found at Dura-Europas show the Parthians had \"an extensive and developed bureaucracy\". §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) G A Koshelenko. V N Pilipko. in Ahmad Hasan Dani. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. §REF§ The Parthians, who were originally a nomadic tribe (the Parni) from northeastern Iran §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) G A Koshelenko. V N Pilipko. in Ahmad Hasan Dani. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. §REF§ , conquered Seleucid territory that already possessed municipal, provincial (satrapal) and central government. The Parthians had some centralized institutions but these were not based at a capital city but \"moved from city to city along with their administration.\" §REF§ Khodadad Rezakhani. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/</a> §REF§ <br>The Parthian nobility was inserted into the regional governance structures they inherited §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 18) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. §REF§ as satraps appointed by the king, while much of the rest of the territory consisted of directly granted personal fiefs §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 18) Jacob Neusner. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. §REF§ or vassal kingdoms. §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1994, 141) G A Koshelenko. V N Pilipko. Parthia. in Janos Harmatta. B N Puri. G F Etemadi. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. §REF§ In terms of central government the Parthian Arsacids retained the Achaemenid model (as had the Seleucids) which had departments called diwans \"responsible for record-keeping, communication, budgeting, and taxation.\" The departments were run by individuals called dibirs who were themselves responsible to a first-minister. §REF§ Khodadad Rezakhani. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/</a> §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 100, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "token", "token": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "IrPart2", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226, "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "new_name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Originally the Parthian were a nomadic tribe, called the Parni, from northeastern Iran. The date of their invasion of ‘Parthia’ is usually given as 247 BCE. The campaigns of Mithridates I (171-138 BCE) spread the authority of the Parthian kings. In 113 BCE Mithridates II took the title of ‘King of Kings’. For 300 years from 92 BC, the Parthian Empire was seen as the main foe of the Roman Empire. Parthian power derived from their military successes and control of commerce. Trade flourished as Parthia was an intermediary between Rome and Far East and became part of the network of Silk Roads. \"There was an extensive and developed bureaucracy, as attested by ostraca from Nisa and by the Parthian parchments and ostraca from Dura-Europos.\" §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. §REF§ The provinces and cities outside the Parthia heartlands paid tribute or allegiance to the ‘king of kings’, but regional lords retained their own power. Although the Parthians themselves were Zoroastrian, the empire was multi-ethnic and multi-religious and revolts against the Parthian King were common. There were also challenges form within the Parthian elites. Parthian Kings were chosen from the Arascid clan, but they were 'appointed' by nobles rather than automatically succeeding to rule. After 40 BCE Parthian military power was weakening and they could not mount offensive operations into Roman territory. They suffered a series of military defeats to the Romans and a smallpox epidemic between 161 CE and 217 CE. However it was invasion by the Sassanians from Iran that ended their rule.<br>Bureaucracy characteristics. “It was status as an agnate [kin group or clan] in one of the noble groups that alone gave access to appointment to any state or court official of importance. Certain offices even became, with the passing of time, hereditary in a particular group”. The groups had \"preferential right\" to hold the office. §REF§ Perikhanian, A., ‘Iranian Society and Law’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), vol.3, P.645 §REF§ <br>Law. There were law courts in the main town of the districts and in every rural district §REF§ Perikhanian, A., ‘Iranian Society and Law’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983),vol. III, p.676. §REF§ <br>Military Technologies. Our information on Parthian armies comes mainly from their enemies, especially Roman sources. Like many central Asian armies, horses were central to their war fighting, foot solders less so. Parthian cavalry was divided into heavy and light forces. The 'Parthian shot' became infamous to the Romans: Plutarch describes their tactic at the battle of Carrhae in 53 BC. Parthian cavalry pretended to flee, then turned in the saddle and fired their bow and arrows. §REF§ Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009), P.187 §REF§ Cassius Dio [c. CE 155 - 235] in <i>Roman History</i>: “The Parthians make no use of a shield, but their forces consist of mounted archers and pikemen, mostly in full armour. Their infantry is small, made up of the weaker men; but even these are all archers. They practise from boyhood, and the climate and the land combine to aid both horsemanship and archery... They are really formidable in warfare, but nevertheless they have a reputation greater than their achievements, because in spite of their not having gained anything from the Romans, and having besides, given up certain portions of their own domain, they have not yet been enslaved, but even to this day hold their own in the wars they wage against us.” §REF§ quoted in Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009), p.186 §REF§ <br>\"The standard turn-out would have included helmets of bronze or iron, sometimes with a neck guard and/or an aventail of lamellar, scale or mail, sometimes sporting a small plume of horsehair, either dyed or left natural; and a corselet of lamellar, mail or scale for the torso. Arm guards were also worn, and some wore guantlets too. The feet were often protected by armour over mail 'socks', and mail was often used to bridge defences at limb joints. A small fabric tabard and/or cloak might be worn, and this was very likely to be made of a rich material such as silk brocade.\" §REF§ (Penrose 2008, 223) Penrose, Jane. 2008. Rome and Her Enemies: An Empire Created and Destroyed by War. Osprey Publishing. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 7, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "token", "token": "absent", "polity": { "id": 470, "name": "CnHQngL", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895, "long_name": "Hmong - Late Qing", "new_name": "cn_hmong_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Hmong are an agricultural people who have inhabited southern China for about 2000 years. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X</a>. §REF§ Made up of several distinct cultures, they are also known as the Miao, an insulting term that loosely translates to 'barbarians' or 'bumpkins'. §REF§ (Fadiman 1997) Fadiman, Anne. 1997. The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two Cultures. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. §REF§ The Qing Dynasty was marked by a series of Hmong uprisings, first in western Hunan from 1795 to 1806 CE, and then in Guizhou from 1854 to 1872. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X</a>. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Throughout most of Hmong history, Chinese governmental control was imposed indirectly through native headmen known as <i>tusi</i>, who were responsible for keeping the peace, tax collection and organizing corvée labour. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X</a>. §REF§ During the Republican period, the Chinese government attempted to assimilate the Hmong as much as possible and heavily discouraged displays of Hmong ethnicity. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X</a>. §REF§ <br>In 1954, the population of the Hmong was estimated at 150,000. §REF§ (Graham 1954, 1) Graham, David Crockett. 1954. Songs and Stories of the Ch’uan Miao. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TWKSXKI8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TWKSXKI8</a>. §REF§ Secure population estimates for earlier periods are lacking but the Hmong may have numbered around 200,000 during the Qing Dynasty.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-01-17T15:40:48.319562Z", "home_nga": { "id": 22, "name": "Southern China Hills", "subregion": "South China", "longitude": "103.991730960000", "latitude": "27.538834142800", "capital_city": "Guizhou", "nga_code": "YUN", "fao_country": "China", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 59, "name": "South China", "subregions_list": "Yangtze Basin and South China", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 43, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "token", "token": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "EgTulIk", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969, "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "new_name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Egypt in the years between 868 and 969 CE is notable for frequent changes in rulers, including three separate regimes in just over a century: the Tulunid Dynasty, the Abbasid Restoration Period, and the Ikshidid Dynasty, which eventually gave way to the Fatimid Caliphate. The Tulunids were a Turkic Dynasty who established an independent rule over Egypt and parts of Syria during a time of instability caused by infighting in the Abbasid court in Damascus. There was a notable 'flowering' of the arts under the Tulunid rulers, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ but the highs and lows of this era of instability are best encapsulated by the reign of Khumarawayh. Although Egypt saw 'peace and prosperity' under his rule, it has been argued that his extravagant lifestyle and 'lavish' spending on building projects and the maintenance of a large standing army 'overtaxed the state's resources'. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ 'When Khumarawayh was murdered by one of his slaves in 896, the treasury was reportedly empty'. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Egypt during the Tulunid-Ikshidid period has been described as 'an autonomous state, albeit under Abbasid suzerainty'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ When Ahmad ibn Tulun was appointed prefect or governor of Egypt in 868 CE, it was a province of the Abbasid Caliphate. Tulun, who was of Turkish ancestry, was recruited from the military §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 24) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Middleton, ed. 2015, 966) J. Middleton, ed. 2015. <i>World Monarchies and Dynasties</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ and 'never formally repudiated Abbasid authority'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 24) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ He took advantage of a revolt in Palestine and Syria to build up a new Egyptian army of Turkish, Nubian, and Greek mercenaries and slaves, which he paid for by seizing control of the revenue of Egypt from the Abbasid-appointed financial director in 871 CE. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ Ibn Tulun also annexed Syria. §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 130) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>With his new army and the Abbasids distracted by unrest in the Levant, Ibn Tulun worked to increase Egyptian autonomy from the caliph in Baghdad; §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ he stopped sending taxes to the Abbasids and established a new capital at al-Qatai, at the neck of the Nile Delta near Fustat. §REF§ (Middleton, ed. 2015, 966) J. Middleton, ed. 2015. <i>World Monarchies and Dynasties</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ This de facto arrangement became official in 886 CE, when a treaty with the Abbasid Dynasty decreed that Khumarawayh and his successors would govern Egypt for a term of three decades §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ - although Egypt would in fact be under Abbasid control again from 905 to 935 CE. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 34) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ After the Ikshidids gained control of Egypt under Muhammad ibn Tughj (935‒946 CE), §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ the Abbasids, in a similar treaty in 939 CE, granted the governorship of Egypt and Syria to 'the Ikshid and his heirs' for 30 years. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in <i>Encyclopedia of African History</i>, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ <br>The Tulunid governing apparatus included a vizier, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 35) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ who, after the administrative reforms of Ibn Tulun, §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 130) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ apparently ran a competent bureaucracy that oversaw huge spending projects. Ibn Tulun built an aqueduct and a <i>maristan</i> (hospital), which cost 60,000 dinars. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Founded in 873 CE, the hospital was the first of its kind in Egypt. There was probably a functioning postal system (the Egyptian section of the Abbasid <i>barid</i>). Luxuries were never far away for the affluent elites, who spent their riches freely: Khumarawayh converted the <i>maydan</i> (city square) into a lush garden in the Mesopotamian tradition, while in the Ikshidid period Kafur's palace near the Birkat Qarun cost a monumental 100,000 dinars. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 27, 34) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The population of Egypt and the Levant at this time may have totalled 6.5 million, §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 138, 229) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ and the largest city, Fustat in Egypt, had perhaps 150,000 residents. §REF§ (Modelski 2003, 55) George Modelski. 2003. <i>World Cities -3000 to 2000</i>. Washington, DC: Faros. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 98, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "token", "token": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "IrIlkhn", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339, "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "new_name": "ir_il_khanate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Ilkhanate was a state that began under Mongol commander Hulegu who founded the House of Hulegu. §REF§ (Marshall 1993, 229) Robert Marshall. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. §REF§ The nearly eighty years the dynasty lasted was a time of general economic prosperity for the 5 million inhabitants of Persia. The end of the Ilkhanate came when Abu Said, who it is said \"ruled during what was described as the 'best period of the domination of the Mongols\". §REF§ (Marshall 1993, 229) Robert Marshall. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. §REF§ , died without an heir, which resulted in the Jalayirids becoming the strongest faction in the region. §REF§ (Morgan 2015, 78) David Morgan. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. §REF§ <br>The Mongol invaders assimilated to the local culture in Persia. They converted to Islam, used the local languages (Persian and Arabic), and maintained existing Persian administrative practices, the financing of which was underpinned by iqta land grants awarded to senior bureaucrats and army officers. §REF§ (Morgan 2007, 134-148) David Morgan. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ §REF§ (Amitai 2012) Reuven Amitai. 2012. Il-Khanids. Dynastic History. IranicaOnline. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history</a> §REF§ According to the Persian historian Rashid al-Din, who was chief minister to Ghazan §REF§ (Marshall 1993, 228) Robert Marshall. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. §REF§ , the Mongols assessed the vizier (chief of the bureaucracy) on his ability to extract revenue. §REF§ (Morgan 2015, 67) David Morgan. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. §REF§ Even so, previously better known in the region as barbarians bent on destruction, the Mongols rebuilt many hospitals, mosques, and observatories, and impressive mausoleums to the rulers appeared in the cities. §REF§ (Amitai 2012) Reuven Amitai. 2012. Il-Khanids. Dynastic History. IranicaOnline. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Morgan 2007, 134-148) David Morgan. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ <br>During this period, Sultaniya was a famous commercial center and after the intense building activities of Oljetu (r.1304-1316 CE) the 'great city' became the capital. As a result of the work, the circumference of the outer walls almost tripled in length, containing within new fabulous palaces, gardens, and a purpose-built quarter of a thousand houses. §REF§ (Marozzi 2004, 133-135) J Marozzi. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London. §REF§ The largest city in the Ilkhanate at this time was probably Tabriz which also \"developed into a great metropolis\". §REF§ (Morgan 2015, 69) David Morgan. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. §REF§ Tabriz had a cistern for drinking water and baths with hot water. §REF§ (Houtsma et al. 1993, 586) M Th. Houtsma. A J Wensinck. H A R Gibb. W Heffening. E Levi-Provencal. First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936. E.J. Brill. Leiden. §REF§ In 1300 CE Tabriz may have contained 100,000-200,000 inhabitants.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 42, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "token", "token": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 200, "name": "EgThebL", "start_year": -1069, "end_year": -747, "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period", "new_name": "eg_thebes_libyan", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Theban-Libyan Period in Egypt (Twenty-first, Twenty-second and Twenty-third Dynasties, 1069-747 BCE) §REF§ (Baines 2017) John Baines. January 2017. Seshat workshop. Oxford. §REF§ represents another time of decentralization in Egypt and, together with the subsequent Kushite period, makes up the Third Intermediate Period. §REF§ (Pagliari 2012, 183) Giulia Pagliari. 2012. 'Function and Significance of Ancient Egyptian Royal Palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite Period: A Lexicographical Study and Its Possible Connection with the Archaeological Evidence'. PhD thesis, University of Birmingham. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The governments at Memphis and Thebes followed the traditional 'intermediate period' pattern of rulers (pharaoh at Memphis, high priest at Thebes) who ran a bureaucratic system managed by a vizier and overseers of departments. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 337) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ However, the vizier and overseers of the treasury and granaries were unable to project their influence over the regions §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 337) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ and Egypt in this period is best characterised as 'a federation of semi-autonomous rulers, nominally subject (and often related) to an overlord-king'. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 338) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The Egyptian pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty (1077-943 BCE), based at Memphis near the Nile Delta, §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 327) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ served only as nominal heads of state for the whole of Egypt; §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 270) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ a formal agreement ceded control of Middle and Upper Egypt to priest-rulers at Thebes. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 232) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 270) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The priests, who doubled as military commanders, derived their right to rule from the oracles of the 'Theban triad' of gods, Amun, Mut and Khons. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 327-28) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>The Twenty-first Dynasty pharaohs, perhaps in an effort to provide greater legitimacy for their rule over Upper Egypt, turned Tanis in the delta into a 'holy city', building royal tombs within temples built for the Theban triad. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 327) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The most powerful pharaoh of this period, however, was the first Libyan ruler and founder of the Twenty-second Dynasty, Shoshenq I (r. 945-924 BCE). He embarked on an 'ambitious royal building programme' and attempted to regain control of the entirety of Egypt, curtail Thebes' independence, and expand into the Levant. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 329) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The high point did not last long. The perennial problem of Upper Egyptian independence eventually led to the formal division of the state, an imaginative if drastic solution that created a parallel Twenty-third Dynasty based in Leontopolis, or perhaps Herakleopolis. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 233) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The new dynasty was enjoined to reassert control of the south, allowing the Twenty-second Dynasty rulers to concentrate on Lower Egypt. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 233) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ This did not work: by the time of Shoshenq III (r. 827-773 CE), the Twenty-second Dynasty pharaohs could barely even control the north: 'numerous local rulers - particularly in the Delta - became virtually autonomous and several declared themselves kings'. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 330) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>Unfortunately, due to scant evidence, there are no reliable population estimates for this time.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }