Specialized Government Building List
A viewset for viewing and editing Specialized Government Buildings.
GET /api/sc/specialized-government-buildings/
{ "count": 407, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/specialized-government-buildings/?page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 90, "year_from": -2400, "year_to": -1900, "description": " The large-scale complex built at the core of the \"towns\" of the Prepalatial period (Knossos, Phaistos, Malia and Petras)was probably the seat of the political group/s controlling each region. §REF§Tomkins, P. 2012. \"Behind the horizon: reconsidering the genesis and function of the \"First Palace\" at Knossos (Final Neolithic IV-Middle Minoan IB),\" in Schoep, I., Tomkins, P. and Driessen, J. (eds), <i>Back to the Beginning. Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete During the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>,\" Oxford and Oakville, 32-80§REF§ §REF§Todaro, S. 2010. \"Craft production and social practices at Prepalatial Phaistos: the background to the First \"Palace,\"\" in Schoep, I., Tomkins, P. and Driessen, J. (eds), <i>Back to the Beginning. Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete During the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>,\" Oxford and Oakville, 195-235§REF§ §REF§Whitelaw, T. 2010. \"The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation,\" in Schoep, I., Tomkins, P. and Driessen, J. (eds), <i>Back to the Beginning. Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete During the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>,\" Oxford and Oakville, 115-76.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "specialized_government_building", "specialized_government_building": "present", "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "GrCrPre", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900, "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "new_name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Cretan Prepalatial era is divided in Early Minoan I (3000-2700 BCE), Early Minoan IIA (2700-2400 BCE), Early Minoan IIB (2400-2200 BCE), Early Minoan III (2200-2000 BCE) and Middle Minoan IA (2000-1900 BCE) periods. §REF§ (Shelmerdine 2008, 4) Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. 2008. 'Background, sources, and methods' in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Population estimates for the entire island at this time do not appear to be available in the literature. However, Whitelaw has estimated the population of Knossos, Crete's largest centre, at 2,600 to 11,000 inhabitants, that of Phaistos at 1,660 to 5,400, and that of Malia at 1,500 to 3,190. §REF§ (Whitelaw 2012, 156) Todd Whitelaw. 2012. 'The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation', in <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, edited by I. Schope, P. Tomkins and J. Driessen. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 231, "year_from": 300, "year_to": 500, "description": "Suspected unknown at least for the period up to 500 CE.<br>c500 CE and after: \"It may be assumed that by then some of the Juan-juan already lived a settled life and practised agriculture. The original sources repeatedly mention that their khagans obtained ‘seed millet’ from China (some 10,000 shi each time). This shows that the Juan-juan society and state had gradually developed from nomadic herding to a settled agricultural way of life, from yurts to the building of houses and monumental architecture, from the nomadic district to towns. They had invented their own system of writing and developed their own local culture and Buddhist learning flourished.\" §REF§(Kyzlasov 1996, 317)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "specialized_government_building", "specialized_government_building": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "MnRourn", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555, "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "new_name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Orkhon Valley lies either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. Between about 300 and 550 CE, it was under the control of the Rouran. Though these began as nomadic pastoralists like their predecessors the Xianbei and Xiongnu, there is evidence that by the sixth century CE they had transitioned to a settled, agricultural way of life, and from shamanism to Buddhism. §REF§ (Kyzlasov 1996, 317) §REF§ At their peak, they ruled over an empire comprising around 4,000,000 squared kilometers, §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 220-221) §REF§ with a population of no less than 500,000. §REF§ (Kradin 2005, 165) §REF§ This empire was divided into an eastern and a western wing, each ruled by a silifa, who were subordinate to the paramount ruler or khagan. §REF§ (Kradin 2005, 162) §REF§ For ease of organisation, both the population and the army were divided into groups of hundreds and thousands. §REF§ (Kradin 2005, 154-155) §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-10-23T17:31:41.156401Z", "home_nga": { "id": 24, "name": "Orkhon Valley", "subregion": "Mongolia", "longitude": "102.845486000000", "latitude": "47.200757000000", "capital_city": "Karakorum", "nga_code": "MN", "fao_country": "Mongolia", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 9, "name": "Mongolia", "subregions_list": "Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 246, "year_from": 500, "year_to": 800, "description": " There is little direct evidence for bureaucracy during this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ However, Charles Spencer commented: 'One cannot fail to be impressed by the amount and variety of public/institutional architecture constructed between B.C. 300 and A.D. 800 in and around the Main Plaza at Monte Alban. The archaeological data indicate that much of this architectural complexity was in existence by Monte Alban II (100 B.C. through A.D. 200). Many of these buildings do not appear to have been residential and most likely served an array of religious (e.g., the various structures associated with two-room temples), military (such as Building J and perhaps the Ballcourt), and other \"administrative\" functions (including a variety of other public/institutional buildings the functions of which are still unclear). At the same time, it is probably also appropriate to consider the quihuitao (royal palace) to be another example of a public/institutional building. Both the main candidate for a quihuitao at Monte Alban (the Patio Hundido complex, according to Flannery) and also the example recently excavated at El Palenque (which was probably the capital of a rival independent state polity in Late Formative times) near San Martin Tilcajete (see Spencer and Redmond 2004 in Lat Am Antiq, and Redmond and Spencer 2017 PNAS) were not associated with tombs like other elite (and non-elite) residences; also, both examples had \"residential\" as well as \"ceremonial/governmental\" components. Note that the El Palenque quihuitao is securely dated to the Late Monte Albán I phase (300-100 B.C.)'.§REF§Charles Spencer, pers. comm., January 2018.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "specialized_government_building", "specialized_government_building": "present", "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "MxAlb3B", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900, "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "new_name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "General description<br>During the Monte Alban IIIB and IV periods (500-900 CE) in the Valley of Oaxaca Monte Alban and the capital of the neighbouring state, Teotihuacaln declined, with public buildings no longer being maintained and the population of the capitals declining. A mixture of internal and external reasons for this decline are suggested, and has been summed up by Flannery and Marcus: ‘...without the ever-present competitive threat of Teotihuacan, there was one less reason to support what already had become a maladaptive concentration of population on an unproductive 400-m mountaintop.’ §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983, 183) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. p.183https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA §REF§ Unfortunately, detailed chronological data from this period is not present as the ceramic sequences of the IIIB and IV phases are very difficult to differentiate and radiocarbon dates have yet to refine the sequence. §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983, 184) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. p.184 <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA</a> §REF§ The IIIb and IV phases have therefore been combined as one phase on this page. During this phase the population which had previously occupied the capital dispersed into smaller settlements throughout the valley and the valley became occupied by a series of militaristic ‘city states, §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983, 184) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. p.184https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA §REF§ which lasted until the arrival of the Spanish in the 1520s. §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1976, 376) Flannery, Kent V. and Joyce. Marcus. 1976. ‘Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.’ American Scientist 64(4): 374-383. p.376 <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/QKPEF5Q8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/QKPEF5Q8</a> §REF§ <br>Population and political organization<br>As the Zapotec state was in a process of fragmentation into smaller polities, the actual extent of any polity in the Valley of Oaxaca is very difficult to determine for this period. §REF§ (Marcus & Flannery 1996) Marcus, Kent and Flannery, Joyce. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Thames and Hudson. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/SHF4S8D7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/SHF4S8D7</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA</a> §REF§ Although the polity was politically fragmented, nobles continued to occupy hereditary positions of power, which were legitimated through their relationship with their ancestors. §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 198) Joyce, A.A. 2009. 'Peoples of America: Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico'. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 198. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JPXCWSSG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JPXCWSSG</a> §REF§ Nobles continued to have control over and exclusive access to resources and exercised rights not available to commoners “Members of ruling houses, for example, had the right to engage in warfare, take captives, play the ballgame, and offer human sacrifices.” §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 215-217) Joyce, A.A. 2009. Peoples of America : Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 215-217 <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JPXCWSSG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JPXCWSSG</a> §REF§ <br>The overall population of the valley grew during this period, although people were no longer unified under one polity. §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA</a>.</ §REF§ The population of the whole valley has been estimated at 90,000-200,000 people. §REF§ (Kowalewski et al. 1989) Kowalewski, S. A., Feiman, G.M., Finsten, L., Blanton, R. E. and Nicholas, L. M. 1989. Monte Albán’s Hinterland, Part II: The Prehispanic Settlement Patterns in Tlacoula, Etla and Ocotlán, the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JH54I6Q3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JH54I6Q3</a> §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 26, "name": "Valley of Oaxaca", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-96.761022000000", "latitude": "17.041135000000", "capital_city": "Monte Alban", "nga_code": "OAX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 232, "year_from": 501, "year_to": 551, "description": "Suspected unknown at least for the period up to 500 CE.<br>c500 CE and after: \"It may be assumed that by then some of the Juan-juan already lived a settled life and practised agriculture. The original sources repeatedly mention that their khagans obtained ‘seed millet’ from China (some 10,000 shi each time). This shows that the Juan-juan society and state had gradually developed from nomadic herding to a settled agricultural way of life, from yurts to the building of houses and monumental architecture, from the nomadic district to towns. They had invented their own system of writing and developed their own local culture and Buddhist learning flourished.\" §REF§(Kyzlasov 1996, 317)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "specialized_government_building", "specialized_government_building": "present", "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "MnRourn", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555, "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "new_name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Orkhon Valley lies either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. Between about 300 and 550 CE, it was under the control of the Rouran. Though these began as nomadic pastoralists like their predecessors the Xianbei and Xiongnu, there is evidence that by the sixth century CE they had transitioned to a settled, agricultural way of life, and from shamanism to Buddhism. §REF§ (Kyzlasov 1996, 317) §REF§ At their peak, they ruled over an empire comprising around 4,000,000 squared kilometers, §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 220-221) §REF§ with a population of no less than 500,000. §REF§ (Kradin 2005, 165) §REF§ This empire was divided into an eastern and a western wing, each ruled by a silifa, who were subordinate to the paramount ruler or khagan. §REF§ (Kradin 2005, 162) §REF§ For ease of organisation, both the population and the army were divided into groups of hundreds and thousands. §REF§ (Kradin 2005, 154-155) §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-10-23T17:31:41.156401Z", "home_nga": { "id": 24, "name": "Orkhon Valley", "subregion": "Mongolia", "longitude": "102.845486000000", "latitude": "47.200757000000", "capital_city": "Karakorum", "nga_code": "MN", "fao_country": "Mongolia", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 9, "name": "Mongolia", "subregions_list": "Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 248, "year_from": 800, "year_to": 900, "description": " There is little direct evidence for bureaucracy during this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ However, Charles Spencer commented: 'One cannot fail to be impressed by the amount and variety of public/institutional architecture constructed between B.C. 300 and A.D. 800 in and around the Main Plaza at Monte Alban. The archaeological data indicate that much of this architectural complexity was in existence by Monte Alban II (100 B.C. through A.D. 200). Many of these buildings do not appear to have been residential and most likely served an array of religious (e.g., the various structures associated with two-room temples), military (such as Building J and perhaps the Ballcourt), and other \"administrative\" functions (including a variety of other public/institutional buildings the functions of which are still unclear). At the same time, it is probably also appropriate to consider the quihuitao (royal palace) to be another example of a public/institutional building. Both the main candidate for a quihuitao at Monte Alban (the Patio Hundido complex, according to Flannery) and also the example recently excavated at El Palenque (which was probably the capital of a rival independent state polity in Late Formative times) near San Martin Tilcajete (see Spencer and Redmond 2004 in Lat Am Antiq, and Redmond and Spencer 2017 PNAS) were not associated with tombs like other elite (and non-elite) residences; also, both examples had \"residential\" as well as \"ceremonial/governmental\" components. Note that the El Palenque quihuitao is securely dated to the Late Monte Albán I phase (300-100 B.C.)'.§REF§Charles Spencer, pers. comm., January 2018.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "specialized_government_building", "specialized_government_building": "absent", "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "MxAlb3B", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900, "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "new_name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "General description<br>During the Monte Alban IIIB and IV periods (500-900 CE) in the Valley of Oaxaca Monte Alban and the capital of the neighbouring state, Teotihuacaln declined, with public buildings no longer being maintained and the population of the capitals declining. A mixture of internal and external reasons for this decline are suggested, and has been summed up by Flannery and Marcus: ‘...without the ever-present competitive threat of Teotihuacan, there was one less reason to support what already had become a maladaptive concentration of population on an unproductive 400-m mountaintop.’ §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983, 183) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. p.183https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA §REF§ Unfortunately, detailed chronological data from this period is not present as the ceramic sequences of the IIIB and IV phases are very difficult to differentiate and radiocarbon dates have yet to refine the sequence. §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983, 184) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. p.184 <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA</a> §REF§ The IIIb and IV phases have therefore been combined as one phase on this page. During this phase the population which had previously occupied the capital dispersed into smaller settlements throughout the valley and the valley became occupied by a series of militaristic ‘city states, §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983, 184) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. p.184https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA §REF§ which lasted until the arrival of the Spanish in the 1520s. §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1976, 376) Flannery, Kent V. and Joyce. Marcus. 1976. ‘Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.’ American Scientist 64(4): 374-383. p.376 <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/QKPEF5Q8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/QKPEF5Q8</a> §REF§ <br>Population and political organization<br>As the Zapotec state was in a process of fragmentation into smaller polities, the actual extent of any polity in the Valley of Oaxaca is very difficult to determine for this period. §REF§ (Marcus & Flannery 1996) Marcus, Kent and Flannery, Joyce. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Thames and Hudson. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/SHF4S8D7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/SHF4S8D7</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA</a> §REF§ Although the polity was politically fragmented, nobles continued to occupy hereditary positions of power, which were legitimated through their relationship with their ancestors. §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 198) Joyce, A.A. 2009. 'Peoples of America: Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico'. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 198. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JPXCWSSG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JPXCWSSG</a> §REF§ Nobles continued to have control over and exclusive access to resources and exercised rights not available to commoners “Members of ruling houses, for example, had the right to engage in warfare, take captives, play the ballgame, and offer human sacrifices.” §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 215-217) Joyce, A.A. 2009. Peoples of America : Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 215-217 <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JPXCWSSG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JPXCWSSG</a> §REF§ <br>The overall population of the valley grew during this period, although people were no longer unified under one polity. §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA</a>.</ §REF§ The population of the whole valley has been estimated at 90,000-200,000 people. §REF§ (Kowalewski et al. 1989) Kowalewski, S. A., Feiman, G.M., Finsten, L., Blanton, R. E. and Nicholas, L. M. 1989. Monte Albán’s Hinterland, Part II: The Prehispanic Settlement Patterns in Tlacoula, Etla and Ocotlán, the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JH54I6Q3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JH54I6Q3</a> §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 26, "name": "Valley of Oaxaca", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-96.761022000000", "latitude": "17.041135000000", "capital_city": "Monte Alban", "nga_code": "OAX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 247, "year_from": 800, "year_to": 900, "description": " There is little direct evidence for bureaucracy during this period.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§ However, Charles Spencer commented: 'One cannot fail to be impressed by the amount and variety of public/institutional architecture constructed between B.C. 300 and A.D. 800 in and around the Main Plaza at Monte Alban. The archaeological data indicate that much of this architectural complexity was in existence by Monte Alban II (100 B.C. through A.D. 200). Many of these buildings do not appear to have been residential and most likely served an array of religious (e.g., the various structures associated with two-room temples), military (such as Building J and perhaps the Ballcourt), and other \"administrative\" functions (including a variety of other public/institutional buildings the functions of which are still unclear). At the same time, it is probably also appropriate to consider the quihuitao (royal palace) to be another example of a public/institutional building. Both the main candidate for a quihuitao at Monte Alban (the Patio Hundido complex, according to Flannery) and also the example recently excavated at El Palenque (which was probably the capital of a rival independent state polity in Late Formative times) near San Martin Tilcajete (see Spencer and Redmond 2004 in Lat Am Antiq, and Redmond and Spencer 2017 PNAS) were not associated with tombs like other elite (and non-elite) residences; also, both examples had \"residential\" as well as \"ceremonial/governmental\" components. Note that the El Palenque quihuitao is securely dated to the Late Monte Albán I phase (300-100 B.C.)'.§REF§Charles Spencer, pers. comm., January 2018.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": true, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "specialized_government_building", "specialized_government_building": "present", "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "MxAlb3B", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900, "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "new_name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "General description<br>During the Monte Alban IIIB and IV periods (500-900 CE) in the Valley of Oaxaca Monte Alban and the capital of the neighbouring state, Teotihuacaln declined, with public buildings no longer being maintained and the population of the capitals declining. A mixture of internal and external reasons for this decline are suggested, and has been summed up by Flannery and Marcus: ‘...without the ever-present competitive threat of Teotihuacan, there was one less reason to support what already had become a maladaptive concentration of population on an unproductive 400-m mountaintop.’ §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983, 183) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. p.183https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA §REF§ Unfortunately, detailed chronological data from this period is not present as the ceramic sequences of the IIIB and IV phases are very difficult to differentiate and radiocarbon dates have yet to refine the sequence. §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983, 184) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. p.184 <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA</a> §REF§ The IIIb and IV phases have therefore been combined as one phase on this page. During this phase the population which had previously occupied the capital dispersed into smaller settlements throughout the valley and the valley became occupied by a series of militaristic ‘city states, §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983, 184) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. p.184https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA §REF§ which lasted until the arrival of the Spanish in the 1520s. §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1976, 376) Flannery, Kent V. and Joyce. Marcus. 1976. ‘Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.’ American Scientist 64(4): 374-383. p.376 <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/QKPEF5Q8\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/QKPEF5Q8</a> §REF§ <br>Population and political organization<br>As the Zapotec state was in a process of fragmentation into smaller polities, the actual extent of any polity in the Valley of Oaxaca is very difficult to determine for this period. §REF§ (Marcus & Flannery 1996) Marcus, Kent and Flannery, Joyce. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Thames and Hudson. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/SHF4S8D7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/SHF4S8D7</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA</a> §REF§ Although the polity was politically fragmented, nobles continued to occupy hereditary positions of power, which were legitimated through their relationship with their ancestors. §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 198) Joyce, A.A. 2009. 'Peoples of America: Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico'. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 198. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JPXCWSSG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JPXCWSSG</a> §REF§ Nobles continued to have control over and exclusive access to resources and exercised rights not available to commoners “Members of ruling houses, for example, had the right to engage in warfare, take captives, play the ballgame, and offer human sacrifices.” §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 215-217) Joyce, A.A. 2009. Peoples of America : Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 215-217 <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JPXCWSSG\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JPXCWSSG</a> §REF§ <br>The overall population of the valley grew during this period, although people were no longer unified under one polity. §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA</a>.</ §REF§ The population of the whole valley has been estimated at 90,000-200,000 people. §REF§ (Kowalewski et al. 1989) Kowalewski, S. A., Feiman, G.M., Finsten, L., Blanton, R. E. and Nicholas, L. M. 1989. Monte Albán’s Hinterland, Part II: The Prehispanic Settlement Patterns in Tlacoula, Etla and Ocotlán, the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JH54I6Q3\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JH54I6Q3</a> §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 26, "name": "Valley of Oaxaca", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-96.761022000000", "latitude": "17.041135000000", "capital_city": "Monte Alban", "nga_code": "OAX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 402, "year_from": 1867, "year_to": 1918, "description": "Town and city halls; ministeries; parliament buildings. “To keep up with their growing responsibilities and functions, communal administrations expanded and diversified, hiring increasing numbers of educated staff. In 1896 the town of Aussig / Ústí already employed a hundred people. As became typical, by 1900 the town had found it necessary to hire a director to supervise the growing personnel, and in 1911 the town inaugurated a new town office building because the old town hall had no space for increased office demand.”§REF§(Judson 2016: 356-357) Judson, Pieter M. 2016. The Habsburg Empire: A New History. Cambridge, USA; London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BN5TQZBW§REF§ “Expanding infrastructures and new public entitlements compelled the governments of Austria and Hungary to add layers of bureaucrats to fulfill new functions, and then more layers to monitor the effectiveness of the first layers. Competence in producing desired outcomes became critical to maintaining political legitimacy, in local town halls and in imperial ministries alike. Parliaments, crownland diets, and town halls now engaged in archival record- keeping on a scale as yet unknown, while enforcing a maze of legal standards for everything from workplace safety to public health to transportation to conditions of emigration. Bureaucracy begat more bureaucracy as popular expectations fueled the state’s expansion into the everyday lives of its citizens.”§REF§(Judson 2016: 336) Judson, Pieter M. 2016. The Habsburg Empire: A New History. Cambridge, USA; London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BN5TQZBW§REF§ “Symbol of that transformation was Franz Joseph’s decision in 1857 to tear down the colossal fortifications—evidence of the city’s former position near the perilous frontier of the Ottoman Empire—and build the roughly circular boulevard known as the Ringstraße. Over the next several decades a series of imposing structures were erected along this street, in historicist styles that referenced the dynasty’s geographic reach and centuries’-old authority. The Votive Church was erected in gothic style as a thanksgiving for Franz Joseph surviving the 1853 assassination attempt. A permanent parliament was constructed to look like a Greek temple. The city hall echoed in an elephantine fashion Brussels’ medieval city hall.”§REF§(Curtis 2013: 289) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-02-13T17:37:21.794179Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Specialized_government_building", "specialized_government_building": "present", "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918, "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "new_name": "at_habsburg_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ended the Thirty Years' War, the Habsburgs faced the task of consolidating their fragmented territories, this era was marked by a series of succession wars, reflecting the Habsburgs' quest for territorial expansion and dynastic security.§REF§Arndt, Der Dreißigjährige Krieg.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PULFEDKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PULFEDKX</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\nThe beginning of the period saw the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1714), a conflict over the vast inheritance of the Spanish Habsburgs. The war ended with the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt, which, while ceding the Spanish throne to the Bourbon Philip of Anjou, granted the Austrian Habsburgs significant territories in Italy and the Netherlands, reshaping the European balance of power.§REF§Schnettger, Der Spanische Erbfolgekrieg.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HK6DTTSH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HK6DTTSH</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nIn mid-18th century the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) challenged Maria Theresa's right to her father's throne. Despite initial setbacks, including the loss of Silesia to Prussia, Maria Theresa confirmed her rule and laid the foundation for the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty.§REF§(Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Kriegsarchiv)<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WC966X6J\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WC966X6J</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Seven Years' War (1756-1763) further tested the Habsburg power, as Maria Theresa sought to reclaim Silesia and counter Prussia’s rise. This global conflict, stretching from the heart of Europe to distant colonies, ended without altering the Silesian status quo but significantly realigned international alliances, setting the stage for future confrontations.§REF§Danley and Speelman, The Seven Years’ War.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AE3M256H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AE3M256H</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nAt the end of the 18th century, the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778-1779) once again pitted the Habsburgs against Prussia, this time over the strategic region of Bavaria on the question of succession to the Electorate of Bavaria after the extinction of the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Teschen with only minor gains for the Habsburg monarchy.\r\n§REF§Michael Kotulla, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte: vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495 - 1934).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U84B9DNB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: U84B9DNB</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\nIn the 19th century, the Habsburg Empire faced the challenge of Napoleonic France which resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the establishment of the Austrian Empire in 1804, Francis II became Francis I, Emperor of Austria.§REF§“Germany - Prussia, Napoleon, Reunification | Britannica.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F52JWVA3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F52JWVA3</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Congress of Vienna in 1815 which laid the foundation of the post Napoleonic order in central Europe. further redefined the Habsburg realm, securing its status as a great power.§REF§Heinz Duchhardt, Der Wiener Kongress: die Neugestaltung Europas 1814/15.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KQ7ZZYPE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KQ7ZZYPE</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe revolutionary period of 1848, with its calls for liberalization and nationalism, profoundly challenged the imperial status quo, revealing the deep-seated tensions within its multi-ethnic composition.§REF§Dowe, Haupt, and Langewiesche, Europa 1848.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZDEFI38W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZDEFI38W</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nIn response to these internal upheavals and the growing nationalist movements, “the Ausgleich” of 1867 with Hungary marked a pivotal compromise. This agreement gave rise to the Dual Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (“k. u. k.-Monarchie).\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n“The Ausgleich (“compromise”) reached with Hungary in 1867 was a major concession for Franz Joseph, and it created the so-called dualist Austria-Hungary that existed until 1918… The arrangement was dualist because it was not federalist. Rather than parceling out the monarchy into a structure in which the Austro-German lands, the Czech lands, Galicia, and Hungary-Croatia would all have roughly equal weight, it was divided simply into two, the Hungarian half and the Austrian half. This latter was not really called “Austria” but rather “Cisleithania,” meaning “beyond the Leitha River,” which was the border between Austria and Hungary. The formal name of the Cisleithanian half was “the countries and realms represented in the Reichsrat,” which gives some indication of the insubstantial basis for common identity of those territories. The governmental link between these two halves was also minimal. Foreign and military policy belonged almost exclusively to Franz Joseph. He retained the power to appoint and dismiss ministers, who thus had only a partial responsibility to parliament, and he could reject laws passed by the Reichsrat. There was a joint financial ministry and tariff regime. But details such as Hungary’s share of the budget could be renegotiated every decade, which led to repeated political conflicts in the years ahead, so dualism’s division of powers was by no means entirely clear. Nearly everything else was separate. There were distinct parliaments for the Cisleithanian and Hungarian halves, and each half had its own administrative, legal, and school systems. The realm was designated as kaiserlich (“imperial”) for the Austrian Empire of Cisleithania and königlich (“royal”) for the Kingdom of Hungary. In practice, dualism meant that the Austro-Germans dominated the other peoples in their half, and the Hungarians the other peoples in theirs. In many ways, Hungary’s weight within the Dual Monarchy only grew after 1867, thanks to economic advances that in turn fed into greater assertiveness on the part of the Magyar elite… Ultimately, even the Austro-Germans and the Hungarians disliked dualism. The former resented Hungarians’ disproportionate weight in the monarchy, while the latter constantly pushed for more autonomy and resisted any changes that would reduce their weight. And virtually all the other national groups detested the arrangement because it unfairly excluded them.” §REF§Berger, Der Österreichisch-ungarische Ausgleich von 1867.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7SEQIFJ2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7SEQIFJ2</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n“By the summer of 1918 the Habsburg dynasty’s death knell was ringing… Karl presided impotently over the progressive hollowing out of the whole monarchical state until there was almost nothing left that he actually governed. At the end of October the nearly 400-year-old monarchy dissolved in a matter of weeks. Karl issued a proposal for federalization on 16 October, but he and his idea were already irrelevant by that point. Gyula Andrássy, the last foreign minister of Austria-Hungary, said that the implicit logic behind the final, futile moves taken by the leadership was that “so that no one can kill us, we’ll commit suicide.” The initiative was instead firmly in the hands of the various national groups. On 18 October Romanians in Hungary called for union with the Kingdom of Romania. On the 21st the Germans of the monarchy declared their right to self-determination. On the 28th the Czech National Council declared independence, and on the 30th the new Czechoslovakia was officially formed. On the 29th the Croatian parliament formally dissolved its connections to Austria and Hungary and pledged to join the new Yugoslav kingdom. On the 31st the Ruthenians in Galicia announced their secession. On 1 November the Hungarians proclaimed their ties to the monarchy ended, followed ten days later by Galicia joining the new Polish republic. As all this was happening, Karl was still working at his desk in Schönbrunn, but the palace was mostly empty. Only a few loyal servants remained, since even his bodyguards had left. Finally on 11 November Karl signed papers that he was “temporarily” giving up his powers. He never formally abdicated but went into exile, first in Switzerland. Karl twice tried to retake the throne in Hungary in 1921, but after these unsuccessful attempts he was removed by the British to Madeira, where he died in 1922.”§REF§“Das Ende der Monarchie,” Die Welt der Habsburger, accessed February 4, 2024, https://www.habsburger.net/de/kapitel/das-ende-der-monarchie.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G9K39WS5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G9K39WS5</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-12T09:42:59.315585Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 406, "year_from": 1923, "year_to": 1991, "description": "The Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs was founded on 8 September 1802 by the Manifest of Tsar Alexander I.\r\n\r\nIn June 1918, the Regulation on the work of the RSFSR's PCFA was approved, which determined the structural composition of the agency and the order of organisation of representative offices abroad. The generalised experience of the work of the Commissariat became the basis for the Regulation on the RSFSR's PCFA, which was adopted in June 1921. Due to the establishment of the Soviet Union the RSFSR's PCFA was reorganised into the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs of the USSR. In 1923, a new \"Regulation on the USSR's PCFA\" was adopted. The Collegium as a governing body of the people's commissariat was restored.\r\n\r\nFrom January 1990 to the August Coup of 1991 of the so-called State Committee on the State of Emergency, the MFA was headed by Alexander Alexandrovich Bessmertnykh, who was then replaced by Boris Dimitrievich Pankin. At the beginning of November 1991 the state government made a decision on a \"radical reorganisation\" of the MFA and its transformation into the Ministry of Foreign Relations (MFR) with a simultaneous transfer to it of the functions of the Ministry of Foreign Economic Ties. Eduard Shevardnadze, who had returned to diplomatic work for a short time, became the head of this \"experimental\" structure until its abrogation in December 1991.\r\n§REF§https://mid.ru/en/about/social_organizations/§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-11-23T13:07:03.470013Z", "modified_date": "2023-11-23T13:07:03.470027Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Specialized_government_building", "specialized_government_building": "present", "polity": { "id": 601, "name": "ru_soviet_union", "start_year": 1918, "end_year": 1991, "long_name": "Soviet Union", "new_name": "ru_soviet_union", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-12-12T15:11:33.853424Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 81, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "specialized_government_building", "specialized_government_building": "present", "polity": { "id": 67, "name": "GrCrArc", "start_year": -710, "end_year": -500, "long_name": "Archaic Crete", "new_name": "gr_crete_archaic", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Crete is a large island in the Eastern Mediterranean. The Archaic Crete (7th-6th centuries) is divided in the following periods: Orientalizing or Daedalic or Early Archaic (710-600 BCE) and Archaic Archaic (600-500).<br>There was no capital city as Crete was divided into territorial entities, each one centered upon a city that served as the main political and economic centre of its well-defined region. Political, military and religious control was exercised by the Kosmoi, a board of 3 to 10 annually elected nobles. §REF§ Lembesi, A. 1987. \"Η Κρητών Πολιτεία,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 166-72. §REF§ §REF§ Lembesi, A. 1987. \"Η Κρητών Πολιτεία,\" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), <i>Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός</i>, Heraklion, 166-72. §REF§ <br>No information could be found in the sources consulted regarding the polity's overall population, however the largest settlement, Knossos, is estimated to have housed about 4,000 people.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 93, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " inferred from discussion of sources of development/introduction in later periods", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "specialized_government_building", "specialized_government_building": "absent", "polity": { "id": 19, "name": "Hawaii3", "start_year": 1580, "end_year": 1778, "long_name": "Hawaii III", "new_name": "us_hawaii_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Our 'Hawaii 3' refers to the period from 1580 to 1778 CE. 1580 is the approximate date of the formation of the first island-wide unitary kingdom, while 1778 is the date of first European contact ‒ the arrival of Captain Cook. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Kirch 2000, 300) Patrick V. Kirch. 2000. <i>On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands before European Contact</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>By about 1580, 'Umi had become the first true 'king' (<i>ali'i nui</i>) of the entire Big Island. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 92, 98) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ In contrast with the chiefs who came before him, he is said to have exerted greater control over land tenure, instituted a system of territorial administration based on <i>ahupua'a</i> land parcels, intensified food production, and elaborated the religious system. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 102-03) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>After 'Umi, the island alternated several times between being split into two or more smaller polities, and being united under one ruler. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 105-09) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ In times of greater integration, the kingdom was divided into districts (<i>moku</i>) which were each under the control of a major chief called an <i>ali'i-'ai-moku</i>. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 48) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Within districts were territories called <i>ahupua'a</i>, ruled by chiefs called <i>ali'i-'ai-ahupua'a</i>. The more powerful of these <i>ali'i</i> held more than one ahupua'a. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 48) §REF§ Below the ahupua'a chiefs, <i>konohiki</i> land managers (often their junior relatives) oversaw the collection of tribute from the commoner farmers, known as <i>maka'āinana</i>. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 49) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>Overall, this period was characterized by a high-density but stable population settled in all ecological zones, a secondary intensification of the dryland field systems, and endemic conquest warfare. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 127) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ The population of the entire Hawaiian archipelago by Cook's arrival was certainly very large, but there is a long-standing debate regarding exact numbers. Estimates range between 250,000 and 800,000. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 129-130) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 33, "name": "Big Island Hawaii", "subregion": "Polynesia", "longitude": "-155.916989000000", "latitude": "19.528931000000", "capital_city": "Kona", "nga_code": "USHI", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "Oceania-Australia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 30, "name": "Polynesia", "subregions_list": "Polynesia", "mac_region": { "id": 8, "name": "Oceania-Australia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }