Source Of Support List
A viewset for viewing and editing Sources of Support.
GET /api/sc/sources-of-support/
{ "count": 25, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/sources-of-support/?page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 25, "year_from": 1614, "year_to": 1775, "description": "Peter the Great's Reforms: The reign of Peter the Great (1672-1725) was a pivotal period for the Russian bureaucracy. He worked to modernize the Russian state along European lines, creating a European-style army, navy, and bureaucracy. His reforms included efforts to pay officials in money rather than allowing them to live off the land, a practice he banned in 1714. However, this was only partially successful, and in practice, only officials in Moscow and St. Petersburg were paid in this manner.§REF§Pipes, Richard. Russia under the Old Regime. 2nd ed, Penguin Books, 1995.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LEIXLKAP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: LEIXLKAP</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-01-02T16:50:50.886140Z", "modified_date": "2024-01-02T16:54:01.502306Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Source_of_support", "source_of_support": "governed population", "polity": { "id": 600, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_1", "start_year": 1614, "end_year": 1775, "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty I", "new_name": "ru_romanov_dyn_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 26, "year_from": 1714, "year_to": 1775, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2024-01-02T16:51:23.978345Z", "modified_date": "2024-01-02T16:51:23.978358Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Source_of_support", "source_of_support": "state salary", "polity": { "id": 600, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_1", "start_year": 1614, "end_year": 1775, "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty I", "new_name": "ru_romanov_dyn_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 19, "year_from": 1867, "year_to": 1918, "description": "“The structure of civil-service compensation was then further modified by the Liberals in early 1873, when the (Adolf) Auersperg Cabinet introduced a major bill to create eleven rank classes (Rangklassen) and systematic promotion opportunities based on length of service, along with salary increases that in some cases amounted to 30% to 40%, including various additional supplements.”§REF§(Boyer 2022: 131) Boyer, John W. 2022. Austria, 1867–1955. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CG3P4KKD§REF§ “During the investigations of the Administrative Reform Commission in 1910–11, Guido von Haerdtl reported that civil-service salary expenses had increased nearly 200 per cent between 1890 and 1911, largely owing to additional staff hiring.”§REF§(Boyer 2022: 132) Boyer, John W. 2022. Austria, 1867–1955. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CG3P4KKD§REF§ “At the same time the Emperor continued to ennoble military officers and bourgeois civil servants with patents of minor nobility (Dienstadel) that were essentially career awards. Between 1804 and 1918 the Emperor approved 8,931 ennoblements, including 2,157 to civil servants and over 4,000 to military officers. From 1848 to 1918, 84% of the grants of nobility went to bourgeois for longstanding public or military service.”§REF§(Boyer 2022: 417) Boyer, John W. 2022. Austria, 1867–1955. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CG3P4KKD§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-02-13T17:39:45.611915Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Source_of_support", "source_of_support": "salary", "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918, "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "new_name": "at_habsburg_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ended the Thirty Years' War, the Habsburgs faced the task of consolidating their fragmented territories, this era was marked by a series of succession wars, reflecting the Habsburgs' quest for territorial expansion and dynastic security.§REF§Arndt, Der Dreißigjährige Krieg.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PULFEDKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PULFEDKX</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\nThe beginning of the period saw the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1714), a conflict over the vast inheritance of the Spanish Habsburgs. The war ended with the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt, which, while ceding the Spanish throne to the Bourbon Philip of Anjou, granted the Austrian Habsburgs significant territories in Italy and the Netherlands, reshaping the European balance of power.§REF§Schnettger, Der Spanische Erbfolgekrieg.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HK6DTTSH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HK6DTTSH</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nIn mid-18th century the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) challenged Maria Theresa's right to her father's throne. Despite initial setbacks, including the loss of Silesia to Prussia, Maria Theresa confirmed her rule and laid the foundation for the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty.§REF§(Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Kriegsarchiv)<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WC966X6J\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WC966X6J</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Seven Years' War (1756-1763) further tested the Habsburg power, as Maria Theresa sought to reclaim Silesia and counter Prussia’s rise. This global conflict, stretching from the heart of Europe to distant colonies, ended without altering the Silesian status quo but significantly realigned international alliances, setting the stage for future confrontations.§REF§Danley and Speelman, The Seven Years’ War.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AE3M256H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AE3M256H</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nAt the end of the 18th century, the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778-1779) once again pitted the Habsburgs against Prussia, this time over the strategic region of Bavaria on the question of succession to the Electorate of Bavaria after the extinction of the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Teschen with only minor gains for the Habsburg monarchy.\r\n§REF§Michael Kotulla, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte: vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495 - 1934).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U84B9DNB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: U84B9DNB</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\nIn the 19th century, the Habsburg Empire faced the challenge of Napoleonic France which resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the establishment of the Austrian Empire in 1804, Francis II became Francis I, Emperor of Austria.§REF§“Germany - Prussia, Napoleon, Reunification | Britannica.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F52JWVA3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F52JWVA3</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Congress of Vienna in 1815 which laid the foundation of the post Napoleonic order in central Europe. further redefined the Habsburg realm, securing its status as a great power.§REF§Heinz Duchhardt, Der Wiener Kongress: die Neugestaltung Europas 1814/15.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KQ7ZZYPE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KQ7ZZYPE</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe revolutionary period of 1848, with its calls for liberalization and nationalism, profoundly challenged the imperial status quo, revealing the deep-seated tensions within its multi-ethnic composition.§REF§Dowe, Haupt, and Langewiesche, Europa 1848.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZDEFI38W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZDEFI38W</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nIn response to these internal upheavals and the growing nationalist movements, “the Ausgleich” of 1867 with Hungary marked a pivotal compromise. This agreement gave rise to the Dual Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (“k. u. k.-Monarchie).\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n“The Ausgleich (“compromise”) reached with Hungary in 1867 was a major concession for Franz Joseph, and it created the so-called dualist Austria-Hungary that existed until 1918… The arrangement was dualist because it was not federalist. Rather than parceling out the monarchy into a structure in which the Austro-German lands, the Czech lands, Galicia, and Hungary-Croatia would all have roughly equal weight, it was divided simply into two, the Hungarian half and the Austrian half. This latter was not really called “Austria” but rather “Cisleithania,” meaning “beyond the Leitha River,” which was the border between Austria and Hungary. The formal name of the Cisleithanian half was “the countries and realms represented in the Reichsrat,” which gives some indication of the insubstantial basis for common identity of those territories. The governmental link between these two halves was also minimal. Foreign and military policy belonged almost exclusively to Franz Joseph. He retained the power to appoint and dismiss ministers, who thus had only a partial responsibility to parliament, and he could reject laws passed by the Reichsrat. There was a joint financial ministry and tariff regime. But details such as Hungary’s share of the budget could be renegotiated every decade, which led to repeated political conflicts in the years ahead, so dualism’s division of powers was by no means entirely clear. Nearly everything else was separate. There were distinct parliaments for the Cisleithanian and Hungarian halves, and each half had its own administrative, legal, and school systems. The realm was designated as kaiserlich (“imperial”) for the Austrian Empire of Cisleithania and königlich (“royal”) for the Kingdom of Hungary. In practice, dualism meant that the Austro-Germans dominated the other peoples in their half, and the Hungarians the other peoples in theirs. In many ways, Hungary’s weight within the Dual Monarchy only grew after 1867, thanks to economic advances that in turn fed into greater assertiveness on the part of the Magyar elite… Ultimately, even the Austro-Germans and the Hungarians disliked dualism. The former resented Hungarians’ disproportionate weight in the monarchy, while the latter constantly pushed for more autonomy and resisted any changes that would reduce their weight. And virtually all the other national groups detested the arrangement because it unfairly excluded them.” §REF§Berger, Der Österreichisch-ungarische Ausgleich von 1867.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7SEQIFJ2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7SEQIFJ2</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n“By the summer of 1918 the Habsburg dynasty’s death knell was ringing… Karl presided impotently over the progressive hollowing out of the whole monarchical state until there was almost nothing left that he actually governed. At the end of October the nearly 400-year-old monarchy dissolved in a matter of weeks. Karl issued a proposal for federalization on 16 October, but he and his idea were already irrelevant by that point. Gyula Andrássy, the last foreign minister of Austria-Hungary, said that the implicit logic behind the final, futile moves taken by the leadership was that “so that no one can kill us, we’ll commit suicide.” The initiative was instead firmly in the hands of the various national groups. On 18 October Romanians in Hungary called for union with the Kingdom of Romania. On the 21st the Germans of the monarchy declared their right to self-determination. On the 28th the Czech National Council declared independence, and on the 30th the new Czechoslovakia was officially formed. On the 29th the Croatian parliament formally dissolved its connections to Austria and Hungary and pledged to join the new Yugoslav kingdom. On the 31st the Ruthenians in Galicia announced their secession. On 1 November the Hungarians proclaimed their ties to the monarchy ended, followed ten days later by Galicia joining the new Polish republic. As all this was happening, Karl was still working at his desk in Schönbrunn, but the palace was mostly empty. Only a few loyal servants remained, since even his bodyguards had left. Finally on 11 November Karl signed papers that he was “temporarily” giving up his powers. He never formally abdicated but went into exile, first in Switzerland. Karl twice tried to retake the throne in Hungary in 1921, but after these unsuccessful attempts he was removed by the British to Madeira, where he died in 1922.”§REF§“Das Ende der Monarchie,” Die Welt der Habsburger, accessed February 4, 2024, https://www.habsburger.net/de/kapitel/das-ende-der-monarchie.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G9K39WS5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G9K39WS5</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-12T09:42:59.315585Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 3, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Source of support has not been mentioned in the sources consulted.", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Source_of_support", "source_of_support": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 305, "name": "ItLombr", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 774, "long_name": "Lombard Kingdom", "new_name": "it_lombard_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>The Lombard were a Germanic tribe who, by the end of the 5th century CE, had settled their territory north of the Danube River, which corresponds approximately to the area that is now modern-day Austria. Under the rule of Alboin, the Lombards invaded and migrated to a defenceless Italy in 568 CE, and within a year had conquered and occupied all major cities north of the Po River.§REF§“Lombard | People | Britannica”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/E6RFZXRD§REF§<br>When they arrived in Italy the Lombards were divided into clans, each with its own war-leader, but by the middle of the seventh century a monarchy had been established which led to a centralised authority which each of the clans ‘dukes’ were answerable to.§REF§Peters 2003: x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X4ETPHA7§REF§<br>In 773 CE the Franks under Charlemagne, and in alliance with Pope Adrian I, invaded Italy. After a year of siege they captured the city of Pavia and the Lombards surrendered to Charlemagne. He became the ruler of both the Lombards and the Franks, and Lombardian rule in Italy came to an end.§REF§“Lombard | People | Britannica”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/E6RFZXRD§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-13T10:38:50.063861Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 9, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " “Although nobles and aristocrats usually occupied the highest echelons of this expanding bureaucracy, educated sons of the middle classes were increasingly filling positions at the middle and lower levels. Moreover, Maria Theresa handed out more patents of nobility than ever before to commoners who earned distinction through their ser vice to the state. During her reign almost 40 percent of all the people who gained a patent of nobility came from the expanding bureaucracy.”§REF§(Judson 2016: 32) Judson, Pieter M. 2016. The Habsburg Empire: A New History. Cambridge, USA; London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BN5TQZBW§REF§ “Through his many regulations for the bureaucracy and its procedures, Joseph sought to establish a unified and equal set of norms throughout the monarchy and to create what often sounds like a secular priesthood. During his ten- year reign he issued a steady stream of regulations to micromanage its every aspect of a bureaucrat’s career, from his education to rules for his hiring, promotion, salary levels, punishments, and vacations, as well as to prohibit him from accepting gifts.”§REF§(Judson 2016: 61) Judson, Pieter M. 2016. The Habsburg Empire: A New History. Cambridge, USA; London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BN5TQZBW§REF§ “The burst of “modernization” in the middle decades of the eighteenth century gave the Habsburg monarchy institutions reasonably advanced for their time. Centralization of power was achieved in large part through the growth of a central bureaucracy, in the Habsburg lands as elsewhere. One estimate has 6,000 members of the state bureaucracy in 1740, 10,000 in 1762, and 20,000 in 1782. These numbers increasingly came from people of non-noble classes, which helped expand the regime’s base of support. Joseph’s travels around the monarchy convinced him that the professionalism of local officials was often low, which inspired his mission to improve the bureaucracy. Thus training was improved, pay increased and tied more to merit, and a pension system introduced.”§REF§(Curtis 2013: 242) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92§REF§ ", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Source_of_support", "source_of_support": "salary", "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918, "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "new_name": "at_habsburg_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ended the Thirty Years' War, the Habsburgs faced the task of consolidating their fragmented territories, this era was marked by a series of succession wars, reflecting the Habsburgs' quest for territorial expansion and dynastic security.§REF§Arndt, Der Dreißigjährige Krieg.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PULFEDKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PULFEDKX</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\nThe beginning of the period saw the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1714), a conflict over the vast inheritance of the Spanish Habsburgs. The war ended with the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt, which, while ceding the Spanish throne to the Bourbon Philip of Anjou, granted the Austrian Habsburgs significant territories in Italy and the Netherlands, reshaping the European balance of power.§REF§Schnettger, Der Spanische Erbfolgekrieg.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HK6DTTSH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HK6DTTSH</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nIn mid-18th century the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) challenged Maria Theresa's right to her father's throne. Despite initial setbacks, including the loss of Silesia to Prussia, Maria Theresa confirmed her rule and laid the foundation for the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty.§REF§(Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Kriegsarchiv)<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WC966X6J\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WC966X6J</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Seven Years' War (1756-1763) further tested the Habsburg power, as Maria Theresa sought to reclaim Silesia and counter Prussia’s rise. This global conflict, stretching from the heart of Europe to distant colonies, ended without altering the Silesian status quo but significantly realigned international alliances, setting the stage for future confrontations.§REF§Danley and Speelman, The Seven Years’ War.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AE3M256H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AE3M256H</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nAt the end of the 18th century, the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778-1779) once again pitted the Habsburgs against Prussia, this time over the strategic region of Bavaria on the question of succession to the Electorate of Bavaria after the extinction of the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Teschen with only minor gains for the Habsburg monarchy.\r\n§REF§Michael Kotulla, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte: vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495 - 1934).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U84B9DNB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: U84B9DNB</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\nIn the 19th century, the Habsburg Empire faced the challenge of Napoleonic France which resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the establishment of the Austrian Empire in 1804, Francis II became Francis I, Emperor of Austria.§REF§“Germany - Prussia, Napoleon, Reunification | Britannica.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F52JWVA3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F52JWVA3</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Congress of Vienna in 1815 which laid the foundation of the post Napoleonic order in central Europe. further redefined the Habsburg realm, securing its status as a great power.§REF§Heinz Duchhardt, Der Wiener Kongress: die Neugestaltung Europas 1814/15.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KQ7ZZYPE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KQ7ZZYPE</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe revolutionary period of 1848, with its calls for liberalization and nationalism, profoundly challenged the imperial status quo, revealing the deep-seated tensions within its multi-ethnic composition.§REF§Dowe, Haupt, and Langewiesche, Europa 1848.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZDEFI38W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZDEFI38W</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nIn response to these internal upheavals and the growing nationalist movements, “the Ausgleich” of 1867 with Hungary marked a pivotal compromise. This agreement gave rise to the Dual Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (“k. u. k.-Monarchie).\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n“The Ausgleich (“compromise”) reached with Hungary in 1867 was a major concession for Franz Joseph, and it created the so-called dualist Austria-Hungary that existed until 1918… The arrangement was dualist because it was not federalist. Rather than parceling out the monarchy into a structure in which the Austro-German lands, the Czech lands, Galicia, and Hungary-Croatia would all have roughly equal weight, it was divided simply into two, the Hungarian half and the Austrian half. This latter was not really called “Austria” but rather “Cisleithania,” meaning “beyond the Leitha River,” which was the border between Austria and Hungary. The formal name of the Cisleithanian half was “the countries and realms represented in the Reichsrat,” which gives some indication of the insubstantial basis for common identity of those territories. The governmental link between these two halves was also minimal. Foreign and military policy belonged almost exclusively to Franz Joseph. He retained the power to appoint and dismiss ministers, who thus had only a partial responsibility to parliament, and he could reject laws passed by the Reichsrat. There was a joint financial ministry and tariff regime. But details such as Hungary’s share of the budget could be renegotiated every decade, which led to repeated political conflicts in the years ahead, so dualism’s division of powers was by no means entirely clear. Nearly everything else was separate. There were distinct parliaments for the Cisleithanian and Hungarian halves, and each half had its own administrative, legal, and school systems. The realm was designated as kaiserlich (“imperial”) for the Austrian Empire of Cisleithania and königlich (“royal”) for the Kingdom of Hungary. In practice, dualism meant that the Austro-Germans dominated the other peoples in their half, and the Hungarians the other peoples in theirs. In many ways, Hungary’s weight within the Dual Monarchy only grew after 1867, thanks to economic advances that in turn fed into greater assertiveness on the part of the Magyar elite… Ultimately, even the Austro-Germans and the Hungarians disliked dualism. The former resented Hungarians’ disproportionate weight in the monarchy, while the latter constantly pushed for more autonomy and resisted any changes that would reduce their weight. And virtually all the other national groups detested the arrangement because it unfairly excluded them.” §REF§Berger, Der Österreichisch-ungarische Ausgleich von 1867.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7SEQIFJ2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7SEQIFJ2</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n“By the summer of 1918 the Habsburg dynasty’s death knell was ringing… Karl presided impotently over the progressive hollowing out of the whole monarchical state until there was almost nothing left that he actually governed. At the end of October the nearly 400-year-old monarchy dissolved in a matter of weeks. Karl issued a proposal for federalization on 16 October, but he and his idea were already irrelevant by that point. Gyula Andrássy, the last foreign minister of Austria-Hungary, said that the implicit logic behind the final, futile moves taken by the leadership was that “so that no one can kill us, we’ll commit suicide.” The initiative was instead firmly in the hands of the various national groups. On 18 October Romanians in Hungary called for union with the Kingdom of Romania. On the 21st the Germans of the monarchy declared their right to self-determination. On the 28th the Czech National Council declared independence, and on the 30th the new Czechoslovakia was officially formed. On the 29th the Croatian parliament formally dissolved its connections to Austria and Hungary and pledged to join the new Yugoslav kingdom. On the 31st the Ruthenians in Galicia announced their secession. On 1 November the Hungarians proclaimed their ties to the monarchy ended, followed ten days later by Galicia joining the new Polish republic. As all this was happening, Karl was still working at his desk in Schönbrunn, but the palace was mostly empty. Only a few loyal servants remained, since even his bodyguards had left. Finally on 11 November Karl signed papers that he was “temporarily” giving up his powers. He never formally abdicated but went into exile, first in Switzerland. Karl twice tried to retake the throne in Hungary in 1921, but after these unsuccessful attempts he was removed by the British to Madeira, where he died in 1922.”§REF§“Das Ende der Monarchie,” Die Welt der Habsburger, accessed February 4, 2024, https://www.habsburger.net/de/kapitel/das-ende-der-monarchie.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G9K39WS5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G9K39WS5</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-12T09:42:59.315585Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 11, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Officials were paid a salary.§REF§Buniyatov 2015: 72-79 . https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SAEVEJFH§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Source_of_support", "source_of_support": "salary", "polity": { "id": 295, "name": "TmKhwrz", "start_year": 1157, "end_year": 1231, "long_name": "Khwarezmid Empire", "new_name": "tm_khwarezmid_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>The Khwarezmid (Khwarazmian or Khorezmian or Khorezmshah) Empire was ruled by the Khwarazmian dynasty (also known by Khwarazmshah dynasty, Anushtegin dynasty or Anushteginids) and consisted of parts of modern-day Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia.<br>The Khwarazmshah dynasty were initially vassal rulers of the Seljuqs but later established their own independent state - which quickly grew into an empire - after the death of the Seljuq Sultan, Sanjar, in 1157.<br>The polity ends after the Mongol conquest of the region in 1219-1221, and the death of the final Khwarazmshah, Muḥammad, Jalāl al-Dīn, in 1231.<br>The list of rulers are:<br>c. 470/c. 1077 Anūshtigin Gharcha’ī nominal Khwārazm Shāh.<br>490/1097 Ekinchi b. Qochqar, Turkish governor with the title Khwdrazm Shah.<br>490/1097 Arslan Tigin Muḥammad b. Anūshtigin, Abu ’l-Fatḥ, Quṭb al-Dín, Khwārazm Shah.<br>521/1127 Qïzïl Arslan Atsïz b. Muḥammad, Abu ‘l-Muẓaffar ‘Alā al-Dīn.<br>551/1156 Il Arslan b. Atsïz, Abu’ l-Fatḥ.<br>567/1172 Tekish b. Il Arslan, Abu’ l-Muẓaffar Tāj al-Dunyā wa ‘ l-Dīn.<br>567– 89/1172–93 Mahmūd b. Il Arslan, Abu ‘ l-Qāsim Sulṭan Shāh, Jalāl al- Dunyā wa ’l-Dīn, rival ruler in northern Khurasan, d.589/1193.<br>596/1200 Muḥammad b. Tekish ‘Alā’ al-Dīn.<br>617–28/1220–31 Mengübirti (one of the usual renderings of this cryptic Turkish name; a further possibility suggested recently by Dr Peter Jackson is Mingīrinī: ‘having a thousand men’ = the familiar Persian name Hazārmard) b. Muḥammad, Jalāl al-Dīn.<br>Mongol conquest of Transoxania and Persia.<br>§REF§Khwarazmshahs I. Descendants of the Line of Anuštigin. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9U8ZTYS§REF§§REF§Bosworth 2012: 301-302. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6JRSLIB§REF§§REF§ Soucek 2000: 320. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GNQIHZ4T§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 13, "name": "Turkestan", "subregions_list": "Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 5, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Source_of_support", "source_of_support": "salary", "polity": { "id": 563, "name": "us_antebellum", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1865, "long_name": "Antebellum US", "new_name": "us_antebellum", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>This polity period spans from American Independence in 1776 following the American Revolution, until 1865 with the end of the American Civil War.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 22, "name": "East Coast", "subregions_list": "East Coast of US", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 13, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " “Following the conquest of the kingdoms of the Sudan, Mawlay Ahmad received so much gold dust that envious men were all troubled and observers absolutely stupefied. So from then on al-Mansur paid his officials in pure gold and in dinars of proper weight only.”§REF§(Fage and Oliver 1975: 150) Fage, J. D. and Oliver, Roland Anthony. 1975. eds., The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 4, from c. 1600 to c. 1790. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z6BCU87M§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Source_of_support", "source_of_support": "salary", "polity": { "id": 578, "name": "mo_alawi_dyn_1", "start_year": 1631, "end_year": 1727, "long_name": "Alaouite Dynasty I", "new_name": "mo_alawi_dyn_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>“In 1666 Mawlay al-Rashid was proclaimed sultan in Fez as the first ruler of the new 'Alawi dynasty. In 1669 he conquered Marrakesh and two years later, in 1671, his envoy came to Timbuktu and 'the army pledged allegiance to Mawlay al-Rashid'.2 In other words, as soon as a new Sharifian dynasty assumed authority in Morocco, the arma in Timbuktu renewed nominal and symbolic allegiance.”§REF§(Fage and Oliver 1975: 150) Fage, J. D. and Oliver, Roland Anthony. 1975. eds., The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 4, from c. 1600 to c. 1790. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z6BCU87M§REF§<br>“As the two Sa’did makhzans based on Marrakech and Fez crumbled in the middle years of the seventeenth century (see above, no. 20), Morocco was rent by internal factions, usually with strong religious, maraboutic bases. It was the ‘Alawids or Filālī Shorfā, of the same Hasanī descent as the declining Sa’dids, who finally succeeded in imposing order from an original centre in Tafilalt, the valley of the Wādī Zīz in south-eastern Morocco (whence the name Filālī). Mawlāy al-Rashīd was the first of the family to assume the title of sultan. He began the work of pacification and attempted a a restoration of central authority throughout Morocco, but this proved an extremely lengthy process, so deep-rooted had become provincialism and anarchy. A strong figure like Mawlāy Ismā’īl tried in vain to solve these problems by recruiting, in addition to the gīsh (<Class. Ar. jaysh) or the sultans’ military guard of Arabs, a standing army which included among other elements black slave troops, the ‘abīd al-Bukhārī (colloquially known as the Bwākher), descendants of black slaves imported by the Sa‘dids; it was also Ismā’īl who developed Meknès as the capital and the favoured place of residence for himself and his eighteenth-century successors. But he failed to dislodge the Christians from the ports held by them, and, after his death, Morocco was plunged into its nadir of anarchy and brigandage, with a succession of rival, ephemeral rulers.”§REF§(Boswroth 1996: 115) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 1996. \"The 'Alawid or Filali Sharifs\". The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh. Edinburgh University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6JRSLIB§REF§<br>Isma'il ruled between 1672-1727 and was one of the longest reigning Moroccan sultans. Upon his death his sons fought over the succession and the country went to war until 1757. Isma'il had fathered hundreds of sons, most of whom were eligible for the throne. While the sons were fighting for control of the throne, the country was rebelling against the taxes that Isma'il had imposed. The 'Abid had also grown incredibly powerful during Isma'il's reign and were able to install, influence and depose of sultans. Three of Isma'il's sons ruled on and off between 1727-1733 during which time installations and depositions of sultans were controlled by the 'Abid and in the meantime, north Morocco became almost completely independant of central governement, being ruled by the son of a local governor. . Abu'l Abbas Ahmad was deposed in 1728, only to be reinstated shortly after, but then deposed again on the day of his death on 5 March 1729 - he was smothered to death by his wives in a palace conspiracy. (El Hamel 2014: 213) His half-brother Moulay Abdelmalik was proclaimed sultan before Ahmad was deposed but was murdered three days before his brother died. (El Hamel 2014: 213) His brother and successor, Moulay Abdallah, was made Sultan and deposed six times between 1729 and 1757 (1729–1734, 1736, 1740–1741, 1741–1742, 1743–1747 and 1748–1757). Upon Abdallah's death his sole surviving heir, Mohammed ben Abdallah, became sultan in 1757 and full order was restored across the country. §REF§(El Hamel 2014: 213) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Maghreb", "subregions_list": "From Morocco to Libya", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 15, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Probably a salary but this is not confirmed in the sources.", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Source_of_support", "source_of_support": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 573, "name": "ru_golden_horde", "start_year": 1240, "end_year": 1440, "long_name": "Golden Horde", "new_name": "ru_golden_horde", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>The Golden Horde – or Ulug Ulus (‘Great State’) – was originally a northwest sector of the Mongol Empire, which became one of four independent khanates after the fragmentation of the empire in 1259, led by the son of Ghengis Khan, Jochi.<br>Our Golden Horde polity begins in 1240 when Khan Batu, the grandson of Ghengis Khan, sacked and burned the city of Kiev, conquering and subjugating the region of the Russian steppe and its principalities.<br>The merging of the nomadic, shamanist, mongol-turkic Gold Horde, with the devoutly Christian and settled people of the Russian steppes, brought about many changes for both sides. <br>From the fourteenth century the Horde officially converted to Islam under the rule of Öz Beg (Uzbek) Khan<br>At its greatest extent, around 1330, the Golden Horde territory ran from the Carpathian Mountains to the steppes of Siberia, while the south bordered the Black Sea, the Caucasus Mountains and the Iranian territory of the Il-Khans.<br>§REF§“Golden Horde”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VXQGWC6R§REF§§REF§ Atwood 2004: vii. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD.§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Pontic-Caspian", "subregions_list": "The steppe belt of Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 12, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": null, "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Source_of_support", "source_of_support": "unknown", "polity": { "id": 561, "name": "us_hohokam_culture", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 1500, "long_name": "Hohokam Culture", "new_name": "us_hohokam_culture", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>The term ‘Hohokam’ was applied to the culture group by archaeologists, and is borrowed from the Uto-Aztecan language, O'odham. However it does not refer to a tribe or peoples, but rather a site where there are “earthen buildings, red on buff pottery, and extensive canals”.§REF§”History & Culture - Casa Grande Ruins National Monument (U.S. National Park Service)”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJU2S97P§REF§ Instead the peoples that created and lived in the Hohokam culture are now referred to as ancestral Sonoran Desert people. There is evidence of the Sonoran Desert people being active in the Hohokam sites from around 5,500 BCE, however the Hohokam culture period runs from c. 300-1500 CE.§REF§“The Ancestral Sonoran Desert People - Casa Grande Ruins National Monument (U.S. National Park Service),”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HZ95455H§REF§<br>Hohokam sites and the people who lived there were based in the “Phoenix Basin along the Gila and Salt Rivers, in southern Arizona along the Santa Cruz and San Pedro Rivers, and north on the Lower Verde River and along the New and Agua Fria Rivers.”§REF§“Hohokam Culture (U.S. National Park Service)”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/34YMDDCN§REF§ Their settlements can be traced to around 300 CE, and their society flourished for around one thousand years until around 1375 when sites became abandoned, and their sophisticated canal and irrigation systems fell into disrepair. The Sonoran Desert people gradually left their ancestral areas and by 1450, when the Spanish arrived, there were only a few small communities of their descendants remaining in the area.§REF§Barnhart 2018: 144. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VPVHH2HJ§REF§<br>Though it is not known exactly what caused the dispersion of these people, speculations have included that there may have been drought, famine, other natural disasters, or internal warfare.§REF§“The Ancestral Sonoran Desert People - Casa Grande Ruins National Monument (U.S. National Park Service),”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HZ95455H§REF§ There is also evidence that their extensive canals and irrigation systems suffered widespread erosion from as early as 1020-1160 CE.§REF§Snow et al. 2020: 198. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5T4C9IQT§REF§<br>The period of the Hohokam culture are usually divided up as follows:§REF§McGuire 2018: 5-6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C9FB2IXT§REF§<br>Pioneer Period: 150 – 725 CE<br>Colonial Period (Gila Butte phase): 725 – 825 CE<br>Colonial Period (Santa Cruz phase): 825 – 1000 CE<br>Sedentary Period (Sacaton phase): 1000-1100 CE<br>Classic Period (Soho phase): 1111 - 1300 CE <br>Classic Period (Civano phase): 1300 - 1450 CE", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 25, "name": "Western North America", "subregions_list": "West Coast, the Rockies, and the American SouthWest", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }