Settlement Hierarchy List
A viewset for viewing and editing Settlement Hierarchies.
GET /api/sc/settlement-hierarchies/
{ "count": 474, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/settlement-hierarchies/?page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 46, "year_from": -3800, "year_to": -3651, "description": "1: 4000-3650 BCE; 2: 3650-3000 BCE§REF§Bard, A. 1994. From farmers to pharaohs: mortuary evidence for the rise of complex society in Egypt. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. pg: 135.§REF§<br>Naqada IA-B: Villages<br>Nagada IC-III: chiefdoms/proto-states centers. Villages<br>Naqada IC-IIB§REF§G. p. Gilbert: 2004. Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in Early Egypt. Archaeopress: Oxford. pg: 108.§REF§ Hoffman thought that in most of villages less than 75 people lived. In centers there were much more§REF§<i>Ciałowicz, M.A. 1999. Początki cywilizacji egipskiej. Warszawa-Kraków: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.</i>pg:156.§REF§<br>over 13,000<br>\"The Predynastic towns were probably not major centers of population and their function must have been primarily symbolic of a new order of life and a center of sacred shrine and deities. There were probably no more than a few towns and perhaps only two important ones in all of Upper Egypt - South Town and Hierakonpolis (Kemp, 1977).\" §REF§(Hassan 1988, 162)§REF§<br>Naqada IC-IIB§REF§G. p. Gilbert: 2004. Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in Early Egypt. Archaeopress: Oxford. pg: 108.§REF§ Hoffman thought that in most of villages less than 75 people lived. In centers there were much more§REF§<i>Ciałowicz, M.A. 1999. Początki cywilizacji egipskiej. Warszawa-Kraków: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.</i>pg:156.§REF§<br>over 13,000<br>Naqadian Egypt is a quasi-polity, or rather a collection of quasi polities. During the majority of Naqada I there were single villages, which might have formed temporary alliances with other villages, but in fact were politically independent. Most of these villages consisted of 50 to 200 habitants. However it is possible that some of these alliances grew up to the bigger towns consisted 1,000 or 2,000 people.<br>It is during Naqada IC that these towns and villages started to unite and polities began to form. Now instead of scattered villages, there are a few chiefdoms with the town-centres, called sometimes pre-states and later, as the unification and polity development proceed, proto-states. So the rapidly changes in the polity population coded above is not only an effect of growing population but also or even first of all the result of development of the chiefdoms size.<br>The exact time and the spreed of unification is not known so scholars can only show the level of changes in some distinguishing point. And this is exactly what G. P. Gilbert did.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "polity": { "id": 511, "name": "EgNaqa1", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3550, "long_name": "Naqada I", "new_name": "eg_naqada_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Naqada is a Predynastic archaeological culture located in Upper Egypt, the strip of land flanking the Nile river south of the Faiyum region and north of the First Cataract. Named after the site where British archaeologist Flinders Petrie uncovered a necropolis of over 3000 graves in the late 19th century, §REF§ (Midant-Reynes 2000, 41) Béatrix Midant-Reynes. 2000. 'The Naqada Period (c. 4000-3200 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 41-56. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ the Naqada culture is dated from around 3800 to 3100 BCE. §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 5) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society A</i> 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ The Naqada has been subdivided into three periods ‒ the Amratian, Gerzean, and Semainean ‒ as well as, more recently, into Naqada IA-C, IIA-D, and IIIA-D. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 424) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 2) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society A</i> 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ Seshat's 'Naqada 1' (3800-3550 BCE) corresponds to the Naqada IA-IIB phases; Naqada 2 (3550-3300 BCE) to IIC-IID; and Naqada 3 (3300-3100 BCE) to IIIA-IIIB. We end Naqada 3 with the IIIB-C transition, because the First Dynasty of the Egyptian state is considered to begin with the accession of King Aha in Naqada IIIC. §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 2) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society A</i> 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ Naqada III is also sometimes referred to as the Protodynastic period or 'Dynasty 0'.<br>Early Naqada archaeological material is clustered around the key sites of Naqada itself, Abydos, and Hierakonpolis (ancient Nekhen) in the fertile land nestled around the 'Qena bend' of the Nile. §REF§ (Bard 1994, 267) Kathryn A. Bard. 1994. 'The Egyptian Predynastic: A Review of the Evidence'. <i>Journal of Field Archaeology</i> 21 (3): 265-88. §REF§ However, from the late Naqada II onwards, there is an archaeologically visible expansion of the culture both southwards along the Nile and northwards into Lower Egypt (the Delta), eventually reaching as far north as the Levant in Naqada IIIA-B. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 442-43) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ <br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The 4th millennium BCE was a crucial period for Egyptian state formation. Prior to roughly 3800 BCE, Upper Egypt was inhabited by seasonally mobile farmers and herders, constituting an archaeological culture known as the Badarian. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422, 428-29) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ However, the Naqada periods brought a series of key social transformations to the region, including increasing inequality, a greater commitment to sedentary settlement and cereal farming, the emergence of full-time craft specialists, and, towards the end of the millennium, the invention of writing. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 431-32, 434) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Hendrickx 2011, 93) Stan Hendrickx. 2011. 'Crafts and Craft Specialization', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 93-98. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ §REF§ (Wengrow 2011, 99) David Wengrow. 2011. 'The Invention of Writing in Egypt', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 99-103. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ The growth of hierarchical social structures and the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt laid the foundations for the divine kings and complex bureaucracy of the Old Kingdom and beyond.<br>During Naqada I, new forms of political organization appeared ‒ relatively swiftly compared to other prehistoric cultures ‒ in the upper Nile Valley. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 431-32) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ According to the Egyptologist Branislav Anđelković, previously autonomous agricultural villages began to band together to form 'chiefdoms' or 'proto-nomes' between Naqada IA and IB (a 'nome' was an administrative division in the later Egyptian state). §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 28) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ In Naqada IC, even larger political entities ‒ 'nome pre-states' ‒ started to form, centred on Naqada, Abydos and Hierakonpolis. It has been suggested that a 'primitive chiefdom' centred around a 'royal' authority based at Hierakonpolis, had formed by around 3700 BCE. §REF§ (García 2013, 187-88) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the Third Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power, Generating Authority: Cosmos, Politics, and the Ideology of Kingship in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by Jane A. Hill, Philip Jones, and Antonio J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ Not all researchers agree with this terminology, believing that it creates the impression of an inexorable march towards state formation, and some prefer to stress the fragile and experimental nature of early complex social formations in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422, 427) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ However, the term chiefdom remains in common usage as a label for the new ranked societies of the early 4th millennium. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Bard 2017, 2) Kathryn A. Bard. 2017. 'Political Economies of Predynastic Egypt and the Formation of the Early State'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 25: 1-36. §REF§ §REF§ (Koehler 2010, 32) E. Christiana Koehler. 2010. 'Prehistory', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 25-47. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In the Naqada II period, 'proto-states' formed, and by the Naqada III we can speak of kings and a centralized government ruling over a unified Upper and Lower Egypt. §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 29-30) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ <br>We lack firm figures for the population of Egypt during the Naqada. At the beginning of the period, most inhabitants of Upper Egypt were living in small villages. §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 28) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ However, as the 4th millennium progressed, archaeologists can discern a process of urbanization and aggregation into larger political units. The largest known settlement, Hierakonpolis, grew into a regional centre of power in the 3800‒3500 BCE period §REF§ (Friedman 2011, 34) Renée Friedman. 2011. 'Hierakonpolis', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 33-44. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ and may have reached a population of between 5,000 and 10,000 people in the late Naqada I. §REF§ (Hoffman, Hamroush and Allen 1986, 181) Michael Allen Hoffman, Hany A. Hamroush and Ralph O. Allen. 1986. 'A Model of Urban Development for the Hierakonpolis Region from Predynastic through Old Kingdom Times'. <i>Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i> 23: 175-87. §REF§ Other researchers consider this figure 'inflated' §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 436) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ and point to recent evidence from the Abydos region for low population numbers throughout the Predynastic period. §REF§ (Patch 2004, 914) Diana Craig Patch. 2004. 'Settlement Patterns and Cultural Change in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams</i>, edited by S. Hendrickx, R. F. Friedman, K. M. Ciałowicz and M. Chłodnicki, 905-18. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 185, "year_from": -3800, "year_to": -3501, "description": " levels.<br>Early Uruk = 3<br>\"The almost 95 hectares of settlment are partitioned into a three-level settlement size hierarchy of villages, small centers, and a single large center.<br>1. Large center<br>2. Small center3. Village<br>Uruk period = 4<br>\"was one of economic and political reorganization. By Middle Uruk (ca. 3500 B.C.), the Susiana settlement system consisted of a four-tier settlement size hierarchy with direct evidence of resident administrative activity at its top and bottom levels. The presence of administrative function at the intervening levels of hierarchy, and of an overall four-level administrative organization seemed likely. In combination with evidence for the centralization of craft production as part of an administered local exchange system, these features suggested the operation of a Middle Uruk state.\"§REF§(Johnson 1987, 108) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>During the Late Chalcolithic (3900-3500 BCE): \"The decline of Chogha Mish occurred as Susa, located to the west, had grown in prominence as a regional center. During this time Susa had grown in size to over 20 ha. The decline in the size of Chagha Mish also corresponds to the time at which the number of sites were decreasing in number throughout the Zagros and southwestern lowlands (Hole 1987a: 42). The size of the site and the nature of its architecture and material remains indicate that Chogha Mish was an important regional administrative center. However, the precise nature of the administrative activities carried out there remains unclear (see Hole 1987a: 40-41). The excavators have suggested that the monumental architectural precinct may have had both an industrial and religious focus (Kantor 1976: 26). Although likely, this has not yet been fully demonstrated in the literature. It is interesting to note, however, that the majority of the published objects which appear to have functioned as tokens all cluster around a single Middle Susiana structure (Delougaz and Kantor 1996: table 27 and plate 269). A small number of sealings were also recovered from this context (De1ougaz and Kantor 1996: 256-257).\" §REF§(Peasnall in Peregrine and Ember 2002, 180-181)§REF§<br>1. Capital: Susa? 20 ha.<br>2. Regional administrative center: Chogha Mish?3. Village<br>At start of Susa II urban area of Susa had declined to 5 ha site but overall Susiana had more settleents and had three other sites of comparable size to Susa.§REF§(Potts 2016, 55) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 3, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "polity": { "id": 493, "name": "IrSusa2", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3100, "long_name": "Susa II", "new_name": "ir_susa_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": " §REF§ (Johnson 1987, 131) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C. §REF§ <br>Uruk (IrSusa1)\"Sometime during the fourth millennium, in the urban center of Uruk (for which the archaeological period is named), southern Mesopotamia acquired a specifically Sumerian historical identity. With the introduction of a system of writing, a gradual development from an earlier accounting system, a radical change occurred in the social organization and in the very foundations of thought. ... Susa, in its earliest period (Susa I) attached to the world of the Iranian plateau, was now (in Susa II) integrated into the early Sumerian civilization of Mesopotamia, which it interpreted with originality. Precise stratigraphic excavations conducted in recent decades have allowed us to trace developments at Susa in the Uruk phase, notably of an accounting system that preceded the slightly later appearance of writing.\" §REF§ (Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 4) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art. §REF§ <br><br/>Chronology for Iran §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 513) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ <br>Uruk colonies<br>Proto-Elamite period 3100-2700 BCE<br>Awan 2350-2200 BCE (contemporaneous with Akkad in Lower Mesopotamia)<br>Simash 2050-1950 BCE<br>Sukkalmah 1900-1750 BCE<br>Middle Elamite kingdom c1300-1100 BCE<br>Neo-Elamite kingdom 750-650 BCE<br>Media 650-550 BCE<br>Susa - Tal-i Malyan (Anshan, Anzan) [450-550] KM2.<br><br/>Liverani 2014 chronology for Isin-Larsa period 2000-1750 BCE §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 192-193) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ Elam §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 193) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ <br>2000 BCE Shimashki dynasty, Kindattu c2000 BCE ... Indattu II c1925 BCE (last or last known)<br>1900 BCE Sukkalmah dynasty, Ebarat c1900 BCE ... Kuduzulush c1765 BCE (last or last known)<br><br/><br>\"Susa ... began its political life around 6000 BC, first as a city-state, then as an empire rivaling Sumer in Mesopotamia, and subsequently as the capital of one of the oldest empires of antiquity, Elam, around 3000 BC.\" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ <br>\"Thus the earliest experience of state tradition and administrative functions on a massive scale in Iran began around 6000 BC.\" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ <br>\"The main instrument of public administration and governance under the long history of the federal state of Elam was the bureaucracy, which also played a powerful role under the Median and the Persian empires.\" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ <br>\"Unlike the small city-state of Sumer, the Elamite empire was formed and administered on a massive scale and governed a large territory comprising present Iran and a major part of the Near East, at times including Babylonia and Assyria, for over 2500 years.\" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ <br>\"Their bureaucratic contacts with the Assyrians and Babylonians gave them useful insights. However, being a rival to Sumer, Babylon, and Assyria, the Elamite federal government developed the first Iranian tradition of public administration on a massive scale, though that tradition originated much earlier in the great city-state of Susa.\" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ <br>\"development of an active intergovernmental management and federalism, perhaps the earliest in history.\" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ <br>\"In the cities, thriving activities reigned, where along with the villages, professions of all kinds flourished, showing clear evidence of variety and stratification of professional and, hence, social classes in ancient Elam.\" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ <br>\"The development of centers on the Susiana plane, beginning with Middle Cha1colithic Chogha Mish and culminating in the rise of Susa during the Late Chalcolithic. suggests a trend towards regional control in some economic and administrative activities (Delougaz and Kantor 1996, Hole 1987b: 89-90). This trend towards centralization may also be suggested by the presence of possible elite or \"Khan's\" houses during this time at several sites (Hole 1987a: 41). In spite of these trends, Chalcolithic society throughout Khuzistan presents a strong egalitarian appearance. During the Middle and Late Chalcolithic, differential access to resources may have involved less archaeological1y visible items such as staples. access to water, and control over labor, as it appears to have done at this time in Mesopotamia (Stein 1994).\" §REF§ (Peasnall in Peregrine and Ember 2002, 173) §REF§ The Middle Chalcolithic corresponds to 4800-3900 BCE and the Late Chalcolithic corresponds to 3900-3500 BCE in this book.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 47, "year_from": -3650, "year_to": -3551, "description": "1: 4000-3650 BCE; 2: 3650-3000 BCE§REF§Bard, A. 1994. From farmers to pharaohs: mortuary evidence for the rise of complex society in Egypt. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. pg: 135.§REF§<br>Naqada IA-B: Villages<br>Nagada IC-III: chiefdoms/proto-states centers. Villages<br>Naqada IC-IIB§REF§G. p. Gilbert: 2004. Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in Early Egypt. Archaeopress: Oxford. pg: 108.§REF§ Hoffman thought that in most of villages less than 75 people lived. In centers there were much more§REF§<i>Ciałowicz, M.A. 1999. Początki cywilizacji egipskiej. Warszawa-Kraków: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.</i>pg:156.§REF§<br>over 13,000<br>\"The Predynastic towns were probably not major centers of population and their function must have been primarily symbolic of a new order of life and a center of sacred shrine and deities. There were probably no more than a few towns and perhaps only two important ones in all of Upper Egypt - South Town and Hierakonpolis (Kemp, 1977).\" §REF§(Hassan 1988, 162)§REF§<br>Naqada IC-IIB§REF§G. p. Gilbert: 2004. Weapons, Warriors and Warfare in Early Egypt. Archaeopress: Oxford. pg: 108.§REF§ Hoffman thought that in most of villages less than 75 people lived. In centers there were much more§REF§<i>Ciałowicz, M.A. 1999. Początki cywilizacji egipskiej. Warszawa-Kraków: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.</i>pg:156.§REF§<br>over 13,000<br>Naqadian Egypt is a quasi-polity, or rather a collection of quasi polities. During the majority of Naqada I there were single villages, which might have formed temporary alliances with other villages, but in fact were politically independent. Most of these villages consisted of 50 to 200 habitants. However it is possible that some of these alliances grew up to the bigger towns consisted 1,000 or 2,000 people.<br>It is during Naqada IC that these towns and villages started to unite and polities began to form. Now instead of scattered villages, there are a few chiefdoms with the town-centres, called sometimes pre-states and later, as the unification and polity development proceed, proto-states. So the rapidly changes in the polity population coded above is not only an effect of growing population but also or even first of all the result of development of the chiefdoms size.<br>The exact time and the spreed of unification is not known so scholars can only show the level of changes in some distinguishing point. And this is exactly what G. P. Gilbert did.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "polity": { "id": 511, "name": "EgNaqa1", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3550, "long_name": "Naqada I", "new_name": "eg_naqada_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Naqada is a Predynastic archaeological culture located in Upper Egypt, the strip of land flanking the Nile river south of the Faiyum region and north of the First Cataract. Named after the site where British archaeologist Flinders Petrie uncovered a necropolis of over 3000 graves in the late 19th century, §REF§ (Midant-Reynes 2000, 41) Béatrix Midant-Reynes. 2000. 'The Naqada Period (c. 4000-3200 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 41-56. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ the Naqada culture is dated from around 3800 to 3100 BCE. §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 5) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society A</i> 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ The Naqada has been subdivided into three periods ‒ the Amratian, Gerzean, and Semainean ‒ as well as, more recently, into Naqada IA-C, IIA-D, and IIIA-D. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 424) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 2) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society A</i> 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ Seshat's 'Naqada 1' (3800-3550 BCE) corresponds to the Naqada IA-IIB phases; Naqada 2 (3550-3300 BCE) to IIC-IID; and Naqada 3 (3300-3100 BCE) to IIIA-IIIB. We end Naqada 3 with the IIIB-C transition, because the First Dynasty of the Egyptian state is considered to begin with the accession of King Aha in Naqada IIIC. §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 2) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society A</i> 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ Naqada III is also sometimes referred to as the Protodynastic period or 'Dynasty 0'.<br>Early Naqada archaeological material is clustered around the key sites of Naqada itself, Abydos, and Hierakonpolis (ancient Nekhen) in the fertile land nestled around the 'Qena bend' of the Nile. §REF§ (Bard 1994, 267) Kathryn A. Bard. 1994. 'The Egyptian Predynastic: A Review of the Evidence'. <i>Journal of Field Archaeology</i> 21 (3): 265-88. §REF§ However, from the late Naqada II onwards, there is an archaeologically visible expansion of the culture both southwards along the Nile and northwards into Lower Egypt (the Delta), eventually reaching as far north as the Levant in Naqada IIIA-B. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 442-43) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ <br><i>Population and Political Organization</i><br>The 4th millennium BCE was a crucial period for Egyptian state formation. Prior to roughly 3800 BCE, Upper Egypt was inhabited by seasonally mobile farmers and herders, constituting an archaeological culture known as the Badarian. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422, 428-29) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ However, the Naqada periods brought a series of key social transformations to the region, including increasing inequality, a greater commitment to sedentary settlement and cereal farming, the emergence of full-time craft specialists, and, towards the end of the millennium, the invention of writing. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 431-32, 434) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Hendrickx 2011, 93) Stan Hendrickx. 2011. 'Crafts and Craft Specialization', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 93-98. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ §REF§ (Wengrow 2011, 99) David Wengrow. 2011. 'The Invention of Writing in Egypt', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 99-103. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ The growth of hierarchical social structures and the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt laid the foundations for the divine kings and complex bureaucracy of the Old Kingdom and beyond.<br>During Naqada I, new forms of political organization appeared ‒ relatively swiftly compared to other prehistoric cultures ‒ in the upper Nile Valley. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 431-32) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ According to the Egyptologist Branislav Anđelković, previously autonomous agricultural villages began to band together to form 'chiefdoms' or 'proto-nomes' between Naqada IA and IB (a 'nome' was an administrative division in the later Egyptian state). §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 28) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ In Naqada IC, even larger political entities ‒ 'nome pre-states' ‒ started to form, centred on Naqada, Abydos and Hierakonpolis. It has been suggested that a 'primitive chiefdom' centred around a 'royal' authority based at Hierakonpolis, had formed by around 3700 BCE. §REF§ (García 2013, 187-88) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the Third Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power, Generating Authority: Cosmos, Politics, and the Ideology of Kingship in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by Jane A. Hill, Philip Jones, and Antonio J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ Not all researchers agree with this terminology, believing that it creates the impression of an inexorable march towards state formation, and some prefer to stress the fragile and experimental nature of early complex social formations in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422, 427) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ However, the term chiefdom remains in common usage as a label for the new ranked societies of the early 4th millennium. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Bard 2017, 2) Kathryn A. Bard. 2017. 'Political Economies of Predynastic Egypt and the Formation of the Early State'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 25: 1-36. §REF§ §REF§ (Koehler 2010, 32) E. Christiana Koehler. 2010. 'Prehistory', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 25-47. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In the Naqada II period, 'proto-states' formed, and by the Naqada III we can speak of kings and a centralized government ruling over a unified Upper and Lower Egypt. §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 29-30) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ <br>We lack firm figures for the population of Egypt during the Naqada. At the beginning of the period, most inhabitants of Upper Egypt were living in small villages. §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 28) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ However, as the 4th millennium progressed, archaeologists can discern a process of urbanization and aggregation into larger political units. The largest known settlement, Hierakonpolis, grew into a regional centre of power in the 3800‒3500 BCE period §REF§ (Friedman 2011, 34) Renée Friedman. 2011. 'Hierakonpolis', in <i>Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization</i>, edited by Emily Teeter, 33-44. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ and may have reached a population of between 5,000 and 10,000 people in the late Naqada I. §REF§ (Hoffman, Hamroush and Allen 1986, 181) Michael Allen Hoffman, Hany A. Hamroush and Ralph O. Allen. 1986. 'A Model of Urban Development for the Hierakonpolis Region from Predynastic through Old Kingdom Times'. <i>Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt</i> 23: 175-87. §REF§ Other researchers consider this figure 'inflated' §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 436) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i> 24: 421-68. §REF§ and point to recent evidence from the Abydos region for low population numbers throughout the Predynastic period. §REF§ (Patch 2004, 914) Diana Craig Patch. 2004. 'Settlement Patterns and Cultural Change in the Predynastic Period', in <i>Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams</i>, edited by S. Hendrickx, R. F. Friedman, K. M. Ciałowicz and M. Chłodnicki, 905-18. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 186, "year_from": -3500, "year_to": -3101, "description": " levels.<br>Early Uruk = 3<br>\"The almost 95 hectares of settlment are partitioned into a three-level settlement size hierarchy of villages, small centers, and a single large center.<br>1. Large center<br>2. Small center3. Village<br>Uruk period = 4<br>\"was one of economic and political reorganization. By Middle Uruk (ca. 3500 B.C.), the Susiana settlement system consisted of a four-tier settlement size hierarchy with direct evidence of resident administrative activity at its top and bottom levels. The presence of administrative function at the intervening levels of hierarchy, and of an overall four-level administrative organization seemed likely. In combination with evidence for the centralization of craft production as part of an administered local exchange system, these features suggested the operation of a Middle Uruk state.\"§REF§(Johnson 1987, 108) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C.§REF§<br>During the Late Chalcolithic (3900-3500 BCE): \"The decline of Chogha Mish occurred as Susa, located to the west, had grown in prominence as a regional center. During this time Susa had grown in size to over 20 ha. The decline in the size of Chagha Mish also corresponds to the time at which the number of sites were decreasing in number throughout the Zagros and southwestern lowlands (Hole 1987a: 42). The size of the site and the nature of its architecture and material remains indicate that Chogha Mish was an important regional administrative center. However, the precise nature of the administrative activities carried out there remains unclear (see Hole 1987a: 40-41). The excavators have suggested that the monumental architectural precinct may have had both an industrial and religious focus (Kantor 1976: 26). Although likely, this has not yet been fully demonstrated in the literature. It is interesting to note, however, that the majority of the published objects which appear to have functioned as tokens all cluster around a single Middle Susiana structure (Delougaz and Kantor 1996: table 27 and plate 269). A small number of sealings were also recovered from this context (De1ougaz and Kantor 1996: 256-257).\" §REF§(Peasnall in Peregrine and Ember 2002, 180-181)§REF§<br>1. Capital: Susa? 20 ha.<br>2. Regional administrative center: Chogha Mish?3. Village<br>At start of Susa II urban area of Susa had declined to 5 ha site but overall Susiana had more settleents and had three other sites of comparable size to Susa.§REF§(Potts 2016, 55) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 4, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 4, "polity": { "id": 493, "name": "IrSusa2", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3100, "long_name": "Susa II", "new_name": "ir_susa_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": " §REF§ (Johnson 1987, 131) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C. §REF§ <br>Uruk (IrSusa1)\"Sometime during the fourth millennium, in the urban center of Uruk (for which the archaeological period is named), southern Mesopotamia acquired a specifically Sumerian historical identity. With the introduction of a system of writing, a gradual development from an earlier accounting system, a radical change occurred in the social organization and in the very foundations of thought. ... Susa, in its earliest period (Susa I) attached to the world of the Iranian plateau, was now (in Susa II) integrated into the early Sumerian civilization of Mesopotamia, which it interpreted with originality. Precise stratigraphic excavations conducted in recent decades have allowed us to trace developments at Susa in the Uruk phase, notably of an accounting system that preceded the slightly later appearance of writing.\" §REF§ (Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 4) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art. §REF§ <br><br/>Chronology for Iran §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 513) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ <br>Uruk colonies<br>Proto-Elamite period 3100-2700 BCE<br>Awan 2350-2200 BCE (contemporaneous with Akkad in Lower Mesopotamia)<br>Simash 2050-1950 BCE<br>Sukkalmah 1900-1750 BCE<br>Middle Elamite kingdom c1300-1100 BCE<br>Neo-Elamite kingdom 750-650 BCE<br>Media 650-550 BCE<br>Susa - Tal-i Malyan (Anshan, Anzan) [450-550] KM2.<br><br/>Liverani 2014 chronology for Isin-Larsa period 2000-1750 BCE §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 192-193) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ Elam §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 193) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ <br>2000 BCE Shimashki dynasty, Kindattu c2000 BCE ... Indattu II c1925 BCE (last or last known)<br>1900 BCE Sukkalmah dynasty, Ebarat c1900 BCE ... Kuduzulush c1765 BCE (last or last known)<br><br/><br>\"Susa ... began its political life around 6000 BC, first as a city-state, then as an empire rivaling Sumer in Mesopotamia, and subsequently as the capital of one of the oldest empires of antiquity, Elam, around 3000 BC.\" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ <br>\"Thus the earliest experience of state tradition and administrative functions on a massive scale in Iran began around 6000 BC.\" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ <br>\"The main instrument of public administration and governance under the long history of the federal state of Elam was the bureaucracy, which also played a powerful role under the Median and the Persian empires.\" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ <br>\"Unlike the small city-state of Sumer, the Elamite empire was formed and administered on a massive scale and governed a large territory comprising present Iran and a major part of the Near East, at times including Babylonia and Assyria, for over 2500 years.\" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ <br>\"Their bureaucratic contacts with the Assyrians and Babylonians gave them useful insights. However, being a rival to Sumer, Babylon, and Assyria, the Elamite federal government developed the first Iranian tradition of public administration on a massive scale, though that tradition originated much earlier in the great city-state of Susa.\" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ <br>\"development of an active intergovernmental management and federalism, perhaps the earliest in history.\" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ <br>\"In the cities, thriving activities reigned, where along with the villages, professions of all kinds flourished, showing clear evidence of variety and stratification of professional and, hence, social classes in ancient Elam.\" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ <br>\"The development of centers on the Susiana plane, beginning with Middle Cha1colithic Chogha Mish and culminating in the rise of Susa during the Late Chalcolithic. suggests a trend towards regional control in some economic and administrative activities (Delougaz and Kantor 1996, Hole 1987b: 89-90). This trend towards centralization may also be suggested by the presence of possible elite or \"Khan's\" houses during this time at several sites (Hole 1987a: 41). In spite of these trends, Chalcolithic society throughout Khuzistan presents a strong egalitarian appearance. During the Middle and Late Chalcolithic, differential access to resources may have involved less archaeological1y visible items such as staples. access to water, and control over labor, as it appears to have done at this time in Mesopotamia (Stein 1994).\" §REF§ (Peasnall in Peregrine and Ember 2002, 173) §REF§ The Middle Chalcolithic corresponds to 4800-3900 BCE and the Late Chalcolithic corresponds to 3900-3500 BCE in this book.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 9, "name": "Susiana", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "48.235564000000", "latitude": "32.382851000000", "capital_city": "Susa (Shush)", "nga_code": "IR", "fao_country": "Iran", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 45, "name": "Iran", "subregions_list": "Iran", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 99, "year_from": -3000, "year_to": -2200, "description": " levels. <b>3100-2200 BCE</b>: Small nucleated villages and isolated hamlets coexisted throughout the island, especially in lowland and coastal areas. §REF§e.g. Driessen, J. and Frankel, D. 2012.\"Minds and mines: settlement networks and the diachronic use of space on Cyprus and Crete,\" in Cadogan, G.,Iacovou, M., Kopaka, K. and Whitley, J. (eds) <i>Parallel Lives: Ancient Island Societies in Crete and Cyprus</i> (<i>BSA</i> Studies 20), London, 70-2.§REF§ The size of these sites is about 2 ha aside Knossos where a settlement of 5 ha already existed since the Final Neolithic period. §REF§Tomkins, P. 2008. \"Time, space and the reinvention of the Cretan Neolithic,\" in Isaakidou, V. and Tomkins, P. D. (eds), <i>Escaping the Labyrinth. The Cretan Neolithic in Context</i>, Sheffiled, 35§REF§ §REF§Whitelaw, T. 2012. \"The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation,\" in n Schope, I., Tomkins, P. and Driessen, J. (eds), <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, Oxford, 150.§REF§ This settled scape is characterized by a considerable degree of regionalism which is expressed in material culture and social practices. §REF§Driessen, J. and Frankel, D. 2012.\"Minds and mines: settlement networks and the diachronic use of space on Cyprus and Crete,\" in Cadogan, G.,Iacovou, M., Kopaka, K. and Whitley, J. (eds) <i>Parallel Lives: Ancient Island Societies in Crete and Cyprus</i> (<i>BSA</i> Studies 20), London, 70§REF§ §REF§Whitelaw, T. 2012. \"The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation,\" in n Schope, I., Tomkins, P. and Driessen, J. (eds), <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, Oxford, 150.§REF§ From the Early Minoan II onwards (2700-2200 BCE), the importance of coastal sites considerably increased while many inland sites seems to be abandoned. Monumental constructions appeared for the first time at Knossos, Malia, Phaistos, Tylissos, and Palaikastro. Many sites were destroyed or burned at the end of the period and this has been interpreted as the outcome of conflict between different social groups aspiring to political and economic power. §REF§Warren, P. M. 1987. \"The genesis of the Minoan palace,\" in Hägg, R. and Marinatos, N. (eds), <i>The Function of the Minoan Palaces. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium at the Swedish Institute in Athens, 10-16 June 1984</i> (<i>SkrAth</i> 4o, 35), Stockholm, 245-248.§REF§ <b>2200-1900 BCE</b>: Settlement hierarchy change: nucleated villages seems less important and there is a new emphasis on mountain zones. Knossos, Malia and Phaistos increased considerably and become centers of a significant importance. The central monumental construction suggest the presence of a authority controlling the surrounding hinterland. §REF§Whitelaw, T. 2012. \"The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation,\" in n Schope, I., Tomkins, P. and Driessen, J. (eds), <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, Oxford, 114-76.§REF§ These large centers and their supporting surrounding regions each form complex social, political and economic landscapes, in which larger regional-scale integrations could occur. §REF§Manning, S. W. 2008. \"5: Protopalatial Crete. 5A: Formation of the palaces,\" in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, Cambridge, 108.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-08-02T12:25:42.368267Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "GrCrPre", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900, "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "new_name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Cretan Prepalatial era is divided in Early Minoan I (3000-2700 BCE), Early Minoan IIA (2700-2400 BCE), Early Minoan IIB (2400-2200 BCE), Early Minoan III (2200-2000 BCE) and Middle Minoan IA (2000-1900 BCE) periods. §REF§ (Shelmerdine 2008, 4) Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. 2008. 'Background, sources, and methods' in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Population estimates for the entire island at this time do not appear to be available in the literature. However, Whitelaw has estimated the population of Knossos, Crete's largest centre, at 2,600 to 11,000 inhabitants, that of Phaistos at 1,660 to 5,400, and that of Malia at 1,500 to 3,190. §REF§ (Whitelaw 2012, 156) Todd Whitelaw. 2012. 'The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation', in <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, edited by I. Schope, P. Tomkins and J. Driessen. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 100, "year_from": -2200, "year_to": -1900, "description": " levels. <b>3100-2200 BCE</b>: Small nucleated villages and isolated hamlets coexisted throughout the island, especially in lowland and coastal areas. §REF§e.g. Driessen, J. and Frankel, D. 2012.\"Minds and mines: settlement networks and the diachronic use of space on Cyprus and Crete,\" in Cadogan, G.,Iacovou, M., Kopaka, K. and Whitley, J. (eds) <i>Parallel Lives: Ancient Island Societies in Crete and Cyprus</i> (<i>BSA</i> Studies 20), London, 70-2.§REF§ The size of these sites is about 2 ha aside Knossos where a settlement of 5 ha already existed since the Final Neolithic period. §REF§Tomkins, P. 2008. \"Time, space and the reinvention of the Cretan Neolithic,\" in Isaakidou, V. and Tomkins, P. D. (eds), <i>Escaping the Labyrinth. The Cretan Neolithic in Context</i>, Sheffiled, 35§REF§ §REF§Whitelaw, T. 2012. \"The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation,\" in n Schope, I., Tomkins, P. and Driessen, J. (eds), <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, Oxford, 150.§REF§ This settled scape is characterized by a considerable degree of regionalism which is expressed in material culture and social practices. §REF§Driessen, J. and Frankel, D. 2012.\"Minds and mines: settlement networks and the diachronic use of space on Cyprus and Crete,\" in Cadogan, G.,Iacovou, M., Kopaka, K. and Whitley, J. (eds) <i>Parallel Lives: Ancient Island Societies in Crete and Cyprus</i> (<i>BSA</i> Studies 20), London, 70§REF§ §REF§Whitelaw, T. 2012. \"The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation,\" in n Schope, I., Tomkins, P. and Driessen, J. (eds), <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, Oxford, 150.§REF§ From the Early Minoan II onwards (2700-2200 BCE), the importance of coastal sites considerably increased while many inland sites seems to be abandoned. Monumental constructions appeared for the first time at Knossos, Malia, Phaistos, Tylissos, and Palaikastro. Many sites were destroyed or burned at the end of the period and this has been interpreted as the outcome of conflict between different social groups aspiring to political and economic power. §REF§Warren, P. M. 1987. \"The genesis of the Minoan palace,\" in Hägg, R. and Marinatos, N. (eds), <i>The Function of the Minoan Palaces. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium at the Swedish Institute in Athens, 10-16 June 1984</i> (<i>SkrAth</i> 4o, 35), Stockholm, 245-248.§REF§ <b>2200-1900 BCE</b>: Settlement hierarchy change: nucleated villages seems less important and there is a new emphasis on mountain zones. Knossos, Malia and Phaistos increased considerably and become centers of a significant importance. The central monumental construction suggest the presence of a authority controlling the surrounding hinterland. §REF§Whitelaw, T. 2012. \"The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation,\" in n Schope, I., Tomkins, P. and Driessen, J. (eds), <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, Oxford, 114-76.§REF§ These large centers and their supporting surrounding regions each form complex social, political and economic landscapes, in which larger regional-scale integrations could occur. §REF§Manning, S. W. 2008. \"5: Protopalatial Crete. 5A: Formation of the palaces,\" in Shelmerdine, C. W. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, Cambridge, 108.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 3, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "GrCrPre", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900, "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "new_name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Cretan Prepalatial era is divided in Early Minoan I (3000-2700 BCE), Early Minoan IIA (2700-2400 BCE), Early Minoan IIB (2400-2200 BCE), Early Minoan III (2200-2000 BCE) and Middle Minoan IA (2000-1900 BCE) periods. §REF§ (Shelmerdine 2008, 4) Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. 2008. 'Background, sources, and methods' in <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age</i>, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Population estimates for the entire island at this time do not appear to be available in the literature. However, Whitelaw has estimated the population of Knossos, Crete's largest centre, at 2,600 to 11,000 inhabitants, that of Phaistos at 1,660 to 5,400, and that of Malia at 1,500 to 3,190. §REF§ (Whitelaw 2012, 156) Todd Whitelaw. 2012. 'The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation', in <i>Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age</i>, edited by I. Schope, P. Tomkins and J. Driessen. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 4, "name": "Crete", "subregion": "Southeastern Europe", "longitude": "25.144200000000", "latitude": "35.338700000000", "capital_city": "Heraklion", "nga_code": "GR", "fao_country": "Greece", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 19, "name": "Southeastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 278, "year_from": -2000, "year_to": -1500, "description": " levels. \"In the period 1500-1000 BCE [...] the Basin developed a two-tiered settlement system\".§REF§(Evans 2004: 124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA</a>.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "polity": { "id": 7, "name": "MxInitl", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1201, "long_name": "Initial Formative Basin of Mexico", "new_name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Initial Formative period (c. 2000-1201 BCE). At the start of this period, maize, squash, and other food crops had been domesticated; however, the earliest known pottery and the earliest known settled villages in the region date to a few centuries later, between 1600 and 1400 BCE. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 171) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6</a>. §REF§ <br>No population estimates could be found in the consulted literature; however, knowing that the site of Tlatilco (which was rather large for its time, and which was settled toward the end of this period) covered about 65 hectares (i.e. 160 acres), §REF§ (Coe 1994: 46) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5DJ2S5IF\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5DJ2S5IF</a>. §REF§ we may estimate that it had a population of between 3,000 and 13,000 people, assuming between 50 and 200 per hectare. No information could be found on the political organisation of settlements at the time, though it is worth noting that, beginning in 1500 BCE, the Basin developed a two-tiered settlement system, §REF§ (Evans 2004: 124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA</a>. §REF§ suggesting perhaps a hierarchical relationship between larger settlements and smaller ones. Moreover, the ability of certain segments of the population to intensify and control access to staples and ceremonial foods likely led to the earliest emergence of social inequalities and political hierarchies. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 171) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 279, "year_from": -1500, "year_to": -1201, "description": " levels. \"In the period 1500-1000 BCE [...] the Basin developed a two-tiered settlement system\".§REF§(Evans 2004: 124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA</a>.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 2, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "polity": { "id": 7, "name": "MxInitl", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1201, "long_name": "Initial Formative Basin of Mexico", "new_name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Initial Formative period (c. 2000-1201 BCE). At the start of this period, maize, squash, and other food crops had been domesticated; however, the earliest known pottery and the earliest known settled villages in the region date to a few centuries later, between 1600 and 1400 BCE. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 171) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6</a>. §REF§ <br>No population estimates could be found in the consulted literature; however, knowing that the site of Tlatilco (which was rather large for its time, and which was settled toward the end of this period) covered about 65 hectares (i.e. 160 acres), §REF§ (Coe 1994: 46) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5DJ2S5IF\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5DJ2S5IF</a>. §REF§ we may estimate that it had a population of between 3,000 and 13,000 people, assuming between 50 and 200 per hectare. No information could be found on the political organisation of settlements at the time, though it is worth noting that, beginning in 1500 BCE, the Basin developed a two-tiered settlement system, §REF§ (Evans 2004: 124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA</a>. §REF§ suggesting perhaps a hierarchical relationship between larger settlements and smaller ones. Moreover, the ability of certain segments of the population to intensify and control access to staples and ceremonial foods likely led to the earliest emergence of social inequalities and political hierarchies. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 171) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6</a>. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 117, "year_from": -1200, "year_to": -1001, "description": " levels.<br>Initially a given polity only consisted of a single settlement<br>\"At the smallest and least complex (in terms of population, geographic scale and decision-making arrangements) end of this continuum, chiefs with limited decision-making prerogatives probably presided over single settlements. In larger examples, more powerful leaders based in larger centers likely exerted varying degrees of control over multiple and varying numbers of settlements. Finally, at the most complex end of this continuum, paramount chiefs ruling from large regional centers with lesser chiefs as political subordinates dominated even larger polities containing numerous settlements and substantial populations. In the present context it seems most likely that chiefdoms of the first type were prevalent during the earlier phases of the Iron Age, with those of the latter two types developing with increasing frequency as time passed.\"§REF§R. Brubaker, Aspects of mortuary variability in the South Indian Iron Age, in <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute</i> 60-61, pp. 253-302§REF§<br>In the Bellary and Raichur districts of Karnataka, there were at least two levels of settlement hierarchy §REF§P. Peregrine, M. Ember (eds), Encyclopedia of Prehistory, vol. 8: South And Southwest Asia (2003), p. 365§REF§:<br>1. Settlements of 20-50 ha2. Settlements of 1-5 ha<br>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 1, "polity": { "id": 86, "name": "InDecIA", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300, "long_name": "Deccan - Iron Age", "new_name": "in_deccan_ia", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The South Indian Iron Age lasted, roughly, from 1200 to 300 BCE. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 59) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. <i>Journal of Social Archaeology</i> 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ The vast majority of Iron Age megalithic structures and associated sites have been found in the modern-day Indian states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. §REF§ (Brubaker 2001-2002, 253) Robert Brubaker. 2001-2002. 'Aspects of Mortuary Variability in the South Indian Iron Age'. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute</i> 60-61: 253-302. §REF§ As in the preceding Neolithic period, South Indians sustained themselves through bovine and caprine pastoralism as well as the cultivation of millet and pulses - and, increasingly, wheat, barley, and rice. Settlement designs became more complex and labour-intensive, and new social arrangements and mortuary practices emerged. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 65) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. <i>Journal of Social Archaeology</i> 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Differences in the scale, design and materials of mortuary megalithic structures and associated grave goods point to the growing hierarchization of South Indian societies at this time. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 65) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. <i>Journal of Social Archaeology</i> 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ However, there was some variation in terms of the sociopolitical organization of individual communities: for example, it is likely that some chiefs with limited decision-making powers ruled over single settlements, and that more powerful leaders based in large centres exerted some control over surrounding settlements, and that some polities were made up of several settlements ruled by a hierarchy of leaders who answered to a single paramount chief. The first type of polity probably prevailed at the beginning of the Iron Age, while the second and third type likely became more common towards its end. §REF§ (Brubaker 2001-2002, 287-91) Robert Brubaker. 2001-2002. 'Aspects of Mortuary Variability in the South Indian Iron Age'. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute</i> 60-61: 253-302. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 118, "year_from": -1000, "year_to": -601, "description": " levels.<br>Initially a given polity only consisted of a single settlement<br>\"At the smallest and least complex (in terms of population, geographic scale and decision-making arrangements) end of this continuum, chiefs with limited decision-making prerogatives probably presided over single settlements. In larger examples, more powerful leaders based in larger centers likely exerted varying degrees of control over multiple and varying numbers of settlements. Finally, at the most complex end of this continuum, paramount chiefs ruling from large regional centers with lesser chiefs as political subordinates dominated even larger polities containing numerous settlements and substantial populations. In the present context it seems most likely that chiefdoms of the first type were prevalent during the earlier phases of the Iron Age, with those of the latter two types developing with increasing frequency as time passed.\"§REF§R. Brubaker, Aspects of mortuary variability in the South Indian Iron Age, in <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute</i> 60-61, pp. 253-302§REF§<br>In the Bellary and Raichur districts of Karnataka, there were at least two levels of settlement hierarchy §REF§P. Peregrine, M. Ember (eds), Encyclopedia of Prehistory, vol. 8: South And Southwest Asia (2003), p. 365§REF§:<br>1. Settlements of 20-50 ha2. Settlements of 1-5 ha<br>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "settlement_hierarchy", "settlement_hierarchy_from": 1, "settlement_hierarchy_to": 2, "polity": { "id": 86, "name": "InDecIA", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -300, "long_name": "Deccan - Iron Age", "new_name": "in_deccan_ia", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The South Indian Iron Age lasted, roughly, from 1200 to 300 BCE. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 59) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. <i>Journal of Social Archaeology</i> 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ The vast majority of Iron Age megalithic structures and associated sites have been found in the modern-day Indian states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. §REF§ (Brubaker 2001-2002, 253) Robert Brubaker. 2001-2002. 'Aspects of Mortuary Variability in the South Indian Iron Age'. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute</i> 60-61: 253-302. §REF§ As in the preceding Neolithic period, South Indians sustained themselves through bovine and caprine pastoralism as well as the cultivation of millet and pulses - and, increasingly, wheat, barley, and rice. Settlement designs became more complex and labour-intensive, and new social arrangements and mortuary practices emerged. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 65) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. <i>Journal of Social Archaeology</i> 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Differences in the scale, design and materials of mortuary megalithic structures and associated grave goods point to the growing hierarchization of South Indian societies at this time. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 65) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. <i>Journal of Social Archaeology</i> 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ However, there was some variation in terms of the sociopolitical organization of individual communities: for example, it is likely that some chiefs with limited decision-making powers ruled over single settlements, and that more powerful leaders based in large centres exerted some control over surrounding settlements, and that some polities were made up of several settlements ruled by a hierarchy of leaders who answered to a single paramount chief. The first type of polity probably prevailed at the beginning of the Iron Age, while the second and third type likely became more common towards its end. §REF§ (Brubaker 2001-2002, 287-91) Robert Brubaker. 2001-2002. 'Aspects of Mortuary Variability in the South Indian Iron Age'. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute</i> 60-61: 253-302. §REF§ <br>No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 15, "name": "Deccan", "subregion": "Central India", "longitude": "76.625407000000", "latitude": "15.386856000000", "capital_city": "Kampli", "nga_code": "DEC", "fao_country": "India", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 36, "name": "Central India", "subregions_list": "Deccan, etc", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }