Polity Population List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Populations.
GET /api/sc/polity-populations/?ordering=description&page=3
{ "count": 467, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/polity-populations/?ordering=description&page=4", "previous": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/polity-populations/?ordering=description&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 653, "year_from": 1500, "year_to": 1500, "description": " 900,000: 1400 CE; 1,600,000: 1500 CE This figure is from Black.§REF§Black, 218§REF§ The population of the papal states was severely affected by the Black Death (1347-49) and subsequent plague cycles (in particular, the plague of 1363 seems to have had a major impact). Black's estimate would make the Papal State roughly equal to that of the Veneto: in the sixteenth century Venice and its Terrafirma were estimated to contain around one and a half million people.§REF§Braudel, 846§REF§ Whereas the Veneto was mostly arable flatland in the Po River Valley, much of the Papal States was mountainous and contained dispersed or scarce population, so the total population may have been lower, especially in the immediate aftermath of the plague cycles of 1347-1349 and 1363-1364. Black has estimated that Italy as a whole had around 11 million people in 1500.§REF§Black, 21§REF§<br><i>ET</i>: McEvedy and Jones estimated that Italy as a whole had around 10,000,000 people in 1500 CE and 7,000,000 in 1400 CE after the Black Death \"cut the population back by about a third.\"§REF§(McEvedy and Jones 1978, 107)§REF§ The estimate we have for the preceding century is 300,000-1,500,000. 900,000 (mid-point figure) minus a third gives an estimate of 600,000 for 1400 CE.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 1600000, "polity_population_to": 1600000, "polity": { "id": 191, "name": "ItPapRn", "start_year": 1378, "end_year": 1527, "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period", "new_name": "it_papal_state_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The 1378-1527 CE period of the Papal States is known for 'Renaissance popes' who \"concentrated their efforts on protecting their Italian domain and in lavishly reconstructing the city of Rome.\" §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 386) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§ The Sistine Chapel, a popular symbol of the renaissance, was built between 1475-1481 CE commissioned by Sixtus IV. Goldthwaite has argued that the papacy's return to Rome in 1378 inaugurated a phase of economic growth for the Rome and its hinterland, reflecting Rome's dependence on the papacy, and not Lazio's productivity, to stimulate the economy. §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2010, 172) Richard Goldthwaite. 2010. <i>The Economy of Renaissance Florence.</i> Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. §REF§ Before the sack of Rome in 1527 CE §REF§ (Bairoch et al 1988, 47) Paul Bairoch. Jean Batou. Pierre Chèvre. 1988. The Population of European Cities from 800 to 1850. Geneva: Droz. §REF§ the population had finally begun to grow again, from about 30,000 early in the 14th century to 55,000.<br>The Renaissance Popes attempted to systematize and unify the financial administration of the Papal State. This meant ending financial and judicial immunities, and rolling back the power of locally powerful bishops and abbots. §REF§ Partner, 385-87; Braudel, 697 §REF§ However, the vast bureaucracy the Pope oversaw was a fundamentally corrupt one, by the late 14th century founded on bribery, the sale of offices, and patronage politics. §REF§ (Martin 2002, 34) John M Marino, ed. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ During the fifteenth century, the sale of offices within the <i>curia</i> became routinized; and Peterson has estimated that under Pope Leo X (1513-1521), two thousand offices were for sale in the city of Rome alone. §REF§ (Peterson 2010, 74) John M Najemy, ed. 2010. <i>Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300-1500.</i> Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ <br>The papacy's ability to control the regions of the Papal States fluctuated dramatically during this period, especially during the Great Schism (1378-1417 CE). During the Schism, numerous ecclesiastical territories in the Papal State were seized by or alienated to secular lords. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 385) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ The 1380s and 1390s were characterized by a long and futile struggle between the Roman and Avignon popes for control of territory and finances in central and southern Italy, with the long-term result being the destabilization of central Italy and the intensified decentralization of power in the Papal State, especially in the Romagna and <i>le Marche</i>. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 371) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>In general, the various lords, cities, and feudatories of the papal states were ready and willing to rebel when possible, for example, in 1375 CE. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 366-367) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ Furthermore, the lords of the petty Lords known as the Romagna were <i>de facto</i> independent for much of the late 14th and early 15th centuries. §REF§ For these petty lordships, see Larner §REF§ During the mid-15th century, King Ferrante of Naples deliberately contracted with Roman barons for them to raise mercenary bands for his service, undercutting these barons' feudal ties to the papacy. §REF§ (Mallett and Shaw 2012, 10) Michael Mallett and Christine Shaw. 2012 <i>The Italian Wars, 1494-1559: War, state and society in early modern Europe.</i> Harlow, England: Pearson. §REF§ <br>As distinct from the previous centuries, up until 1494 CE the Papal States was usually free from influence of German emperors or Spanish kings, §REF§ (Najemy 2010) John M Najemy, ed. 2010. <i>Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300-1500.</i> Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ but the drastically changed situation between 1494-1527 CE, following the French king Charles VIII's invasion of Italy. §REF§ (Ady 1975, 343-367) Denys Hay ed. 1975. <i>The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 658, "year_from": 1400, "year_to": 1400, "description": " 900,000: 1400 CE; 1,600,000: 1500 CE This figure is from Black.§REF§Black, 218§REF§ The population of the papal states was severely affected by the Black Death (1347-49) and subsequent plague cycles (in particular, the plague of 1363 seems to have had a major impact). Black's estimate would make the Papal State roughly equal to that of the Veneto: in the sixteenth century Venice and its Terrafirma were estimated to contain around one and a half million people.§REF§Braudel, 846§REF§ Whereas the Veneto was mostly arable flatland in the Po River Valley, much of the Papal States was mountainous and contained dispersed or scarce population, so the total population may have been lower, especially in the immediate aftermath of the plague cycles of 1347-1349 and 1363-1364. Black has estimated that Italy as a whole had around 11 million people in 1500.§REF§Black, 21§REF§<br><i>ET</i>: McEvedy and Jones estimated that Italy as a whole had around 10,000,000 people in 1500 CE and 7,000,000 in 1400 CE after the Black Death \"cut the population back by about a third.\"§REF§(McEvedy and Jones 1978, 107)§REF§ The estimate we have for the preceding century is 300,000-1,500,000. 900,000 (mid-point figure) minus a third gives an estimate of 600,000 for 1400 CE.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 600000, "polity_population_to": 600000, "polity": { "id": 191, "name": "ItPapRn", "start_year": 1378, "end_year": 1527, "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period", "new_name": "it_papal_state_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The 1378-1527 CE period of the Papal States is known for 'Renaissance popes' who \"concentrated their efforts on protecting their Italian domain and in lavishly reconstructing the city of Rome.\" §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 386) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§ The Sistine Chapel, a popular symbol of the renaissance, was built between 1475-1481 CE commissioned by Sixtus IV. Goldthwaite has argued that the papacy's return to Rome in 1378 inaugurated a phase of economic growth for the Rome and its hinterland, reflecting Rome's dependence on the papacy, and not Lazio's productivity, to stimulate the economy. §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2010, 172) Richard Goldthwaite. 2010. <i>The Economy of Renaissance Florence.</i> Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. §REF§ Before the sack of Rome in 1527 CE §REF§ (Bairoch et al 1988, 47) Paul Bairoch. Jean Batou. Pierre Chèvre. 1988. The Population of European Cities from 800 to 1850. Geneva: Droz. §REF§ the population had finally begun to grow again, from about 30,000 early in the 14th century to 55,000.<br>The Renaissance Popes attempted to systematize and unify the financial administration of the Papal State. This meant ending financial and judicial immunities, and rolling back the power of locally powerful bishops and abbots. §REF§ Partner, 385-87; Braudel, 697 §REF§ However, the vast bureaucracy the Pope oversaw was a fundamentally corrupt one, by the late 14th century founded on bribery, the sale of offices, and patronage politics. §REF§ (Martin 2002, 34) John M Marino, ed. <i>Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796</i>. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ During the fifteenth century, the sale of offices within the <i>curia</i> became routinized; and Peterson has estimated that under Pope Leo X (1513-1521), two thousand offices were for sale in the city of Rome alone. §REF§ (Peterson 2010, 74) John M Najemy, ed. 2010. <i>Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300-1500.</i> Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ <br>The papacy's ability to control the regions of the Papal States fluctuated dramatically during this period, especially during the Great Schism (1378-1417 CE). During the Schism, numerous ecclesiastical territories in the Papal State were seized by or alienated to secular lords. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 385) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ The 1380s and 1390s were characterized by a long and futile struggle between the Roman and Avignon popes for control of territory and finances in central and southern Italy, with the long-term result being the destabilization of central Italy and the intensified decentralization of power in the Papal State, especially in the Romagna and <i>le Marche</i>. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 371) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>In general, the various lords, cities, and feudatories of the papal states were ready and willing to rebel when possible, for example, in 1375 CE. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 366-367) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ Furthermore, the lords of the petty Lords known as the Romagna were <i>de facto</i> independent for much of the late 14th and early 15th centuries. §REF§ For these petty lordships, see Larner §REF§ During the mid-15th century, King Ferrante of Naples deliberately contracted with Roman barons for them to raise mercenary bands for his service, undercutting these barons' feudal ties to the papacy. §REF§ (Mallett and Shaw 2012, 10) Michael Mallett and Christine Shaw. 2012 <i>The Italian Wars, 1494-1559: War, state and society in early modern Europe.</i> Harlow, England: Pearson. §REF§ <br>As distinct from the previous centuries, up until 1494 CE the Papal States was usually free from influence of German emperors or Spanish kings, §REF§ (Najemy 2010) John M Najemy, ed. 2010. <i>Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300-1500.</i> Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ but the drastically changed situation between 1494-1527 CE, following the French king Charles VIII's invasion of Italy. §REF§ (Ady 1975, 343-367) Denys Hay ed. 1975. <i>The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 1, "name": "Latium", "subregion": "Southern Europe", "longitude": "12.486948000000", "latitude": "41.890407000000", "capital_city": "Rome", "nga_code": "IT", "fao_country": "Italy", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 18, "name": "Southern Europe", "subregions_list": "Iberia, Italy", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 522, "year_from": 1532, "year_to": 1532, "description": " Approved of as \"reasonably vague\" by Alan Covey.§REF§(Alan Covey, pers. comm.)§REF§<br>Cook 1980 §REF§(Noble David Cook. 2014. Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1620. Cambridge: CUP§REF§ has done a thoughtful overview of Andean demography and the Inca population at the time of contact §REF§(Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§. Cook reaches an estimate of 5.5 million to 9.4 million inhabitants §REF§(Cook 2004: 113) Noble David Cook. 2014. Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1620. Cambridge: CUP§REF§, but he favours the upper range of this estimate, settling on a number of 9 million §REF§(Cook 2004: 114) Noble David Cook. 2014. Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1620. Cambridge: CUP§REF§. However, Alan Covey has pointed out the methodological weaknesses of Cook's work, which is inferred from documentary evidence compiled decades after the fall of the Incas §REF§(Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§.<br>A possible estimate for the period between 1375-1420 CE would be an inferred 150,000-250,000 inhabitants, based on data for the Killke period (note that the data provides an estimate of 35,000 for the core region; the estimate used for 1400 CE infers a larger population over a territory of 41,000 km2):<br>Sacred Valley Archaeological Project survey region after \"Inka consolidation of the Cusco region\" §REF§(Covey 2003, 343)§REF§ - undated, presumably 1200-1400 CE? Key: Big dot = over 10 ha; medium dot = 5-10 ha; small dots = 1-5 ha; circle and ? = Size unknown. Map has 31 small dots, 4 medium dots, 2 large dots and 3 size unknown.<br>If small dots average 2.5 ha, medium dots 7.5 ha, and the largest dots are 15 ha, and size unknown are 5 ha total urban area of survey area is 152.5 ha. If we assign 150 per ha to small dots (11,625), 300 per ha to medium dots (9,000), 400 per ha to the large dots (12,000), and 200 ha to unknown dots (3,000), estimated urban population (sites > 1 ha) of the Sacred Valley Archeological Project survey region after 1200 CE (?) is 35,625.<br>Cuzco valley: 10,000-20,000. According to a Spaniard in mid 16th century, valley held over 20,000 §REF§(Bauer 2004, 189, 227)§REF§ Alan Covey: But another Spaniard estimated a population of ten times that size. §REF§(Covey 2015, personal communication)§REF§<br>Sacred Valley Archeological Project survey region: 35,625 - 40,000. First figure is estimated urban population (sites > 1 ha) of the valley after 1200 CE (?)<br>\"Spanning over 4,000 km of western South America and encompassing more than ten million inhabitants, Tawantinsuyu was a century-long latecomer to Andean civilization, built on more than three millennia of complex societies.\" §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, xv)§REF§<br>\"Given the complexity of the population problem and the limitations of all the methodologies used by various scholars, it seems unlikely that we shall ever be able to determine an accurate population figure. Nevertheless, these attempts have helped narrow the range of estimates. Most modern Inca scholars seem to accept and work with figures ranging between 6 million and 14 million people.\" §REF§(McEwan 2006, 96)§REF§8,000,000: 1532 CE §REF§(Bauer 2004, 1)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 6000000, "polity_population_to": 14000000, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "PeInca*", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532, "long_name": "Inca Empire", "new_name": "pe_inca_emp", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Inkas or Incas were just one of the multiple chiefdoms competing for power after the collapse of the Wari and Tiwanaku polities of the Middle Horizon. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2002, 48) Terence D'Altroy. 2002. <i>The Incas</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ And yet, they developed to become the largest indigenous empire in the Americas, known as Tawantinsuyu ('the four parts together'). §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 2) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Growing from the Killke confederation, they started to expand in the Cuzco Valley and beyond over the late 14th and 15th centuries CE. §REF§ (Farrington 2013, 25) Ian Farrington. 2013. <i>Cusco: Urbanism and Archaeology in the Inka World</i>. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. §REF§ Over a short period from 1480 to 1532, three successive rulers ‒ Pachakuti, Thupa Inka Yupanqui and Huayna Capac ‒ pursued an expansionary policy which saw the empire stretch from southern Colombia to central Chile, covering most of the Andes. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 96) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Its geographical extent may have covered between 500,000 and 2 million square kilometres, §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ including dry coastal deserts, snow-capped mountains, and the fringes of the Amazon rainforest.<br>Because of their expansionary policy over huge swathes of land, the Inkas needed to establish adequate ruling strategies. They could exert indirect control through their hegemony over local allies. At Farfán in northern Peru, the blend of Chimú and Inka architectural styles may indicate that local elites were the vessel through which Inka rule was manifested. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 382) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Over the areas they conquered by force, the Inkas established new settlements and imposed their own regional administrators. Near Cañete, they massacred the local Guarco population and installed their own colonists at the site of Cerro Azul. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 100) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ The dispersion and relocation of unruly people was one of their strategies to avoid uprisings, and could also serve to foster the empire's productivity. Indeed, resettled populations could be clustered to create specialized centres of production, such as the weavers and potters of Milliraya, Bolivia. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 374) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ <br>In addition to these violent methods, however, the Inka elite used ideological strategies to create a sense of community among conquered populations. Inka art employed a uniform geometric style, easily recognizable throughout the empire. Apart from the fine textiles and metals crafted for the royal lineages by chosen craftspeople, the rest of their ceramics and textiles were mass-produced and mass-distributed. §REF§ (D'Altroy and Schreiber 2004, 267) Terence N. D'Altroy and Katherine Schreiber. 2004. 'Andean Empires', in <i>Andean Archaeology</i>, edited by H. Silverman, 255‒79. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ This meant that Inka identity could be easily replicated and grafted onto existing cultures. The Inka 'package' included ceremonial vessels known as <i>k'eros</i> and <i>aribalos</i>, §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 443) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ used to distribute maize beer or <i>chicha</i> in state-sponsored feasts. The Inkas also reused previously important ceremonial shrines (<i>wak'as</i>) ‒ Muyu Orco, for example, was revered from the Late Formative period to the arrival of the Spanish. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 44) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ ‒ and incorporated them into the network of shrines (<i>z'eque</i>) radiating outwards from Cuzco. §REF§ (Bauer 1998, 3-5) Brian S. Bauer. 1998. <i>The Sacred Landscape of the Inca: The Cusco Ceque System</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ Every year, important state rituals manifested this state ideology on an impressive scale: the Inti Raymi or solstice festival was a grand state ceremony lasting for eight or nine days. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 262-63) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Cuzco acted as a great ceremonial centre with its sacred precincts; provincial administrators could be formally installed during the course of some of these rituals. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ <br>The empire is also known for its elaborate infrastructure works. The royal highway, known as Qhapaq Ñan, was composed of two north/south axes linked by 20 east/west segments, and stretched over 40,000 kilometres. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 5) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Empire-sponsored storage facilities were located near every major town and village along the Inka roads. These units, known as <i>tampus</i>, were located no further than 15-25 kilometres apart, §REF§ (Hyslop 1984, 303) John Hyslop. 1984. <i>The Inka Road System</i>. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ a distance that corresponds to a day's walk and facilitated the transport of armies and commodities throughout the empire. A highly efficient courier system was also in place, whereby messengers called <i>chaski</i> were stationed every 6-9 kilometres to relay messages, §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 370) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ allowing information and commands to travel 250 kilometres in a day. §REF§ (Marchetti and Ausubel 2012, 26) Cesare Marchetti and Jesse H. Ausubel. 2012. 'Quantitative Dynamics of Human Empires'. <i>International Journal of Anthropology</i> 27 (1-2): 1-62. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Inka empire was unprecedented in the Andean region in its ambition and scale. §REF§ (Schreiber 1992, 282-83) Katherine J. Schreiber. 1992. 'Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru'. <i>Anthropological Papers</i>, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. 87. §REF§ Working backwards from colonial estimates, archaeologists and historians have estimated that its population in the early 16th century could have reached between 6 §REF§ (Cook 2004, 113) Noble David Cook. 2014. <i>Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1620</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and 14 million. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 96) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. <i>The Incas: New Perspectives</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. §REF§ The capital, Cuzco, was a thriving city of 20,000 people §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 189, 227) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. <i>Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca</i>. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ divided into two moieties, <i>hanan</i> and <i>hurin</i>, which represented both status divisions and geographical origin. §REF§ (Farrington 2013, 221) Ian Farrington. 2013. <i>Cusco: Urbanism and Archaeology in the Inka World</i>. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. §REF§ <br>At the top of the religious, military and administrative hierarchy was the the emperor, the Sapa Inka. Considered to be the Son of the Sun, he was believed to control supernatural powers. §REF§ Alan Covey 2015, personal communication. §REF§ After their deaths, Inka rulers were still venerated as mummies and their cults were managed by descendants from the same lineage. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 176) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ <br>The Inkas used a 10-tiered administrative system, with 80 provinces administered by a governor in a local urban settlement. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 354-55) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ They implemented a characteristic mode of production known as <i>mit'a</i> ('to take a turn'). §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 395-96) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ This built on Andean notions of reciprocal exchange to extract corvée service from heads of households for two or three months each year, ensuring that the state could rely on constant labour on a rotating basis.<br>The empire came to an abrupt end at the beginning of the 16th century. The Sapa Inka at this time, Huayna Khapaq, was stricken with disease ‒ possibly smallpox that had spread southwards from Central America, where it had been introduced by European invaders ‒ and died in 1528 CE. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 107) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ His sons Waskhar and Atawallpa both claimed the throne, and the empire was soon weakened by civil war and disease. The Spanish. arrived in 1532 and conquered the Inka empire in a few years. It took several decades for them to assert their authority over the impressive geographical extent of the former Inka territory: by 1572, they had subdued the last bastion of Inka power at Vilcabamba. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 21) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. <i>The Incas</i>. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ However, indigenous resistance continued until Peru obtained its independence in 1821.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 30, "name": "Cuzco", "subregion": "Andes", "longitude": "-72.067772000000", "latitude": "-13.477380000000", "capital_city": "Cuzco", "nga_code": "PE", "fao_country": "Peru", "world_region": "South America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 32, "name": "Andes", "subregions_list": "From Ecuador to Chile", "mac_region": { "id": 6, "name": "South America and Caribbean" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 529, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Assuming 50-200 people per ha and 9 ha, we have an estimate of 450-1800. “The extent of the built up areas [of Pirak] remains practically constant, almost 9 hectares, and the apparent conservatism of the material culture are factors that bear witness to an undeniable stability of the settlement.” §REF§Jarrige, J-F. (1979) Fouilles de Pirak. Paris : Diffusion de Boccard. p390§REF§ but \"...it has proved impossible for the moment to define in a less summary fashion its probable area of geographical distribution. As far as the region is concerned, the mound of Pirak is the only one of its kind.\"§REF§Jarrige, J-F. (1979) Fouilles de Pirak. Paris : Diffusion de Boccard.p388§REF§. Although, the material culture found at Pirak has also been uncovered in a much wider area in the north of the Kachi Plain §REF§Jarrige, J-F. (1979) Fouilles de Pirak. Paris : Diffusion de Boccard. p389§REF§, and as far as southern Central Asia and the Ganges valley.§REF§Jarrige, J-F. (2000) Continuity and Change in the North Kachi Plain (Baluchistan, Pakistan) at the beginning of the Second Millennium BC. In, Lahiri, N. The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilization. Permanent Black, Delhi., pp345-362. p355§REF§ The population of Pirak has not been estimated.§REF§Jarrige, J-F. (1997) From Nausharo to Pirak: Continuity and Change in the Kachi/Bolan Region from the 3rd to the 2nd Millennium BC. In, Allchin, R. and Allchin, B. (eds) South Asian Archaeology, 1995, volume I. The Ancient India and Iran Trust, Cambridge., pp 11-32.§REF§ §REF§Jarrige, J-F. (2000) Continuity and Change in the North Kachi Plain (Baluchistan, Pakistan) at the beginning of the Second Millennium BC. In, Lahiri, N. The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilization. Permanent Black, Delhi., pp345-362.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 450, "polity_population_to": 1800, "polity": { "id": 124, "name": "PkProto", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -500, "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Proto-Historic Period", "new_name": "pk_kachi_proto_historic", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. <i>Arts Asiatiques</i> 32: 29-70. §REF§ Here, the settlement of Pirak was established not long after the beginning of the second millennium BCE, and it was continuously occupied from that time up until the sixth or seventh century BCE. Here we consider Pirak II and III, that is, the phases of Pirak's occupation that go from the end of the second millennium to the middle of the first millennium BCE. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 32-33) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. <i>Arts Asiatiques</i> 32: 29-70. §REF§ It seems very likely that Pirak was part of a larger assemblage of culturally similar settlements, but, perhaps due to the erosive effects of nearby rivers, only Pirak remains. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 45-46) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. <i>Arts Asiatiques</i> 32: 29-70. §REF§ Notable archaeological finds from the site at this time include terracotta seals, horse and camel figurines, and zoomorphic game pieces, and the site's architecture and agricultural infrastructure is somewhat reminiscent of the Indus Valley Civilization. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 33-36) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. <i>Arts Asiatiques</i> 32: 29-70. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Not much appears to be known about Pirak's political organization, although the retrieval of terracotta seals §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 36) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. <i>Arts Asiatiques</i> 32: 29-70. §REF§ suggests perhaps the existence of some form of bureaucracy.<br>The scholarly literature does not provide population estimates.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 38, "name": "Pakistan", "subregions_list": "Pakistan", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 335, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Average polity size.<br>368,000/5 = 73,600<br>Some idea for scale of tribal populations comes from Caesar at the time of his invasion of Gaul. Helvetii, Tulingi, Latobrigi, Rauraci and Boii wanted to move from Switzerland to South West Gaul. According to Caesar (c50 BCE) there were 368,000 in total. Another tribe, the Suebi numbered 120,000 people.§REF§(Collis 2003, 107)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 70000, "polity_population_to": 80000, "polity": { "id": 454, "name": "FrTeneB", "start_year": -325, "end_year": -175, "long_name": "La Tene B2-C1", "new_name": "fr_la_tene_b2_c1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "La Tene (B2-C1) was an Iron Age culture in Europe named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland.<br>The territory centred on ancient Gaul and at its height spanned areas in modern day France, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Southern Germany, Czechia, parts of Northern Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, and adjacent parts of the Netherlands, Slovakia, Croatia, western Romania, and western Ukraine.<br>Settlements during this period included larger towns, villages and farmsteads spread throughout their territories. §REF§ (Wells 1999, 45-47) §REF§ During this period tribes became urbanised and more centralized but although they formed alliances with other tribes, they did not join together within a unified centralized polity. §REF§ (Kruta 2004, 105) §REF§ Each tribe had their own fortified urban settlements and there was no capital city.<br>The population is estimated at around 70,000-80,000, and much of the information we have about the populations comes from the time of Caesar’s invasion of Gaul.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 2, "name": "Paris Basin", "subregion": "Western Europe", "longitude": "2.312458000000", "latitude": "48.866111000000", "capital_city": "Paris", "nga_code": "FR", "fao_country": "France", "world_region": "Europe" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 575, "year_from": 1800, "year_to": 1800, "description": " By the time of Capt. Cook’s arrival there in 1779, Kalani’ōpu’u’s kingdom (the entire Big Island plus the Hana district of Maui) had at least 60,000 people, and possibly as many as 150,000 people§REF§Kirch, P. V. 2000. On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact. Berkeley: University of California Press. Pg. 248.§REF§. Kirch (2010: 33) gives as a high figure 150,000 (based on estimates by Lt. King on Cook’s voyage), and a low of 120,000 based on Emory, in Schmitt (1968, Table 6) (This included the kingdom’s foothold in eastern Maui.) In 1778, the population of entire archipelago was 250,000 or more§REF§Kirch, P. V. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Pg. 286.§REF§, so the population of the entire archipelago at the time of Kamehameha’s unification in 1810 was probably somewhat less than this, given outbreaks of disease as well as a considerable number killed in the wars. Given a fairly credible estimate of 142,050 people in the entire archipelago in 1823§REF§Kuykendall, Ralph S. 1968[1938]. The Hawaiian Kingdom, Volume 1: 1778-1854, Foundation and Transformation. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Pg. 336.§REF§, 180,000 is a reasonable estimate for 1810.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 60000, "polity_population_to": 180000, "polity": { "id": 20, "name": "USKameh", "start_year": 1778, "end_year": 1819, "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period", "new_name": "us_kamehameha_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Here, we consider the period of its history from 1778 to 1819. 1778 is the date of first European contact ‒ the arrival of Captain Cook ‒ while 1819 is the year of King Kamehameha I's death. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 170, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Kirch 2000, 300) Patrick V. Kirch. 2000. <i>On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands before European Contact</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Kamehameha was a war chief and keeper of the war god Kūka'ilimoku who, in 1782, rose against King Kīwala'ō and managed to seize power over the Kohala and Kona districts of the Big Island. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 118-19) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Over the next three decades, Kamehameha waged several military campaigns, eventually unifying the entire archipelago (minus Kaua'i and Ni'ihau) in 1804. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 116) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>In this period, Kamehameha I sat at the top of the political hierarchy. He was advised on secular affairs, including war, by the <i>kālaimoku</i>, who also oversaw the royal storehouses, while the <i>kahuna nui</i> was in charge of the king's sacred duties and oversaw his temples and main gods. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 50, 57) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Kamehameha did not introduce many changes to the traditional hierarchies, but he did appoint a number of governors to be his representatives on the other islands. §REF§ (Kuykendall 1938, 51) Ralph S. Kuykendall. 1938. <i>The Hawaiian Kingdom, 1778-1854: Foundation and Transformation</i>. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Press. §REF§ Each island was divided into districts under the control of high-ranking chiefs, the <i>ali'i 'ai moku</i>. These districts were in turn subdivided into territories ruled by lesser chiefs, the <i>ali'i 'ai ahupua'a</i>. Below this level, there were the <i>konohiki</i>, who were in charge of the small and largely self-sufficient <i>ahupua'a</i> territories. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 48-49) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>The population of the entire Hawaiian archipelago by Cook's arrival was certainly very large, but there is a long-standing debate regarding exact numbers. Estimates range between 250,000 and 800,000. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 129-130) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ The 'reasonably accurate' first census of 1832 puts the archipelago's population at around 130,000 people. However, we cannot project this figure backwards in time because the <i>kanaka maoli</i> (indigenous Hawaiian) population fell drastically after Europeans introduced diseases, such as smallpox, syphilis and measles, to which they had no immunity. §REF§ (La Croix and Roumasset 1990, 835) Sumner J. La Croix and James Roumasset. 1990. 'The Evolution of Private Property in Nineteenth-Century Hawaii'. <i>The Journal of Economic History</i> 50 (4): 829-52. §REF§ §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 129-130) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. <i>How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-10-30T17:38:54.894666Z", "home_nga": { "id": 33, "name": "Big Island Hawaii", "subregion": "Polynesia", "longitude": "-155.916989000000", "latitude": "19.528931000000", "capital_city": "Kona", "nga_code": "USHI", "fao_country": "United States", "world_region": "Oceania-Australia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 30, "name": "Polynesia", "subregions_list": "Polynesia", "mac_region": { "id": 8, "name": "Oceania-Australia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 466, "year_from": 1700, "year_to": 1700, "description": " During this period population census were carried out ‘However, the accuracy of such statistics varies greatly, as the surveys often neglected different demographics like members of the samurai household, children, and others’.§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.63.§REF§ A number of scholars have used various methods based on the census and other data to provide estimates that more accurately reflect the actual population. 22,000,000: 1600CE; 25,000,000: 1650CE; 29,000,000: 1700CE; 29,000,000: 1750CE; 28,000,000: 1800CE; 32,000,000: 1850; Population estimate by McEvedy and Jones based on census data chosen to code as it provides figures for the duration of the polity. §REF§McEvedy, C and Jones, R. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books. London.p.181§REF§ 26,065,425: 1721CE; 26,921,816: 1732CE; 26,153,450: 1744CE; 26,061,830: 1756CE; 26,010,600: 1780CE; 24,891,441: 1792CE; 25,517,729: 1804CE; 27,201,400: 1828CE; 27,063,907: 1834; 26,907,625: 1846; Based on census data summarized by (Totman 1993).§REF§Totman, Conrad. 1993. Early Modern Japan. University of California Press. Berkeley; London.p.251.§REF§ 15,000,000-17,000,000: 1600CE population estimate by Farris §REF§Farris, William Wayne. 2006. Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age. University of Hawaii Press.p.212.§REF§.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 29000000, "polity_population_to": 29000000, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "JpTokgw", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868, "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "new_name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Tokugawa period, also known as the Edo period, ran from 1603 to 1868 CE. Sometimes the slightly earlier start date of 1600 is chosen in recognition of Tokugawa Ieyasu's decisive victory at the Battle of Sekigahara; however, we have selected the 1603 date, which marks his official appointment as shogun. Although the emperor remained the official head of state, the Tokugawa shoguns ruled Japan. The rise to power of the Tokugawa Shogunate marked an end to the internal strife and warfare that had characterized the preceding century. Tokugawa Ieyasu and his immediate successors set about limiting the power of their rivals and instituting new policies aimed at maintaining stability and centralizing Japan's government. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 54) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ <br>The 'peak' of the Tokugawa period corresponds to the years between 1688 and 1704 CE, known as the Genroku period, which saw the development of a distinct urban culture and the proliferation of art, theatre and fiction. §REF§ (Totman 1993, 280) Conrad Totman. 1993. <i>Early Modern Japan</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ During the early modern period the Japanese polity consisted of three major islands: Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku. §REF§ (Totman 1993, 3-4) Conrad Totman. 1993. <i>Early Modern Japan</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>Eventually, economic difficulties and the threat of Western encroachment helped to bring about the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate. The period came to an end with the resignation of the last Tokugawa shogun in 1867 and the imperial restoration in 1868. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 12) William E. Deal. 2005. <i>Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Tokugawa shogunate built on the work of the generals Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582 CE) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598 CE), who between 1568 and 1590 succeeded in uniting all the daimyō (local military lords) under the command of a military leader into a 'national confederation'. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 1) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan</i>, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Theoretically, the daimyō maintained administrative authority in their own territories, but in practice they were expected to follow the guidance of the shogunate. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Tokugawa Ieyasu and his successors pursued a policy of 'orthodoxy and stability', §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ aimed at consolidating their own power and limiting the ability of their rivals to amass enough power or wealth to enable them to challenge the shogunate. The success of these policies enabled the Tokugawa family to preside over a period of peace and prosperity and rule Japan for the next 268 years. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 6) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan</i>, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ As well as peace, political stability and the centralization of power by the shoguns, the Tokugawa period was characterized by economic prosperity, rising urbanization and the closings of Japan's borders to the wider world in the 1630s. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 1, 6) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan</i>, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Theoretically, class was determined by birth and social mobility was prohibited. Influenced by Chinese models, the social order was formalized and essentially frozen in a hierarchy known as <i>shi-nō-kō-shō</i>, 'warrior-peasant-artisan-merchant'. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Despite the shogunate's concerted attempts to maintain a strict social orthodoxy, however, the stable and economically prosperous conditions led to a range of social changes, including increasing urbanization and the rise of the merchant class, who (although they were theoretically socially inferior) now held much of the country's wealth. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Now that there was no need for the majority of those of samurai rank to be actively engaged in military activities, the warrior class became bureaucratized, a development that went hand-in-hand with a romanticization of the warrior ideal and the codification of proper rules of behaviour. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ <br>During the Tokugawa period, population censuses were carried out. However, they did not take all members of the population into account and various scholars have therefore used supplementary data to produce what they hope are more accurate estimates. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 63) William E. Deal. 2005. <i>Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Estimates for the beginning of the period (1600 CE) range from around 15 §REF§ (Farris 2006, 212) William Wayne Farris. 2006. <i>Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age</i>. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. §REF§ to 22 §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ million. The population rose to around 30 million by the end of the period. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ §REF§ (Totman 1993, 251) Conrad Totman. 1993. <i>Early Modern Japan</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 21, "name": "Kansai", "subregion": "Northeast Asia", "longitude": "135.762200000000", "latitude": "35.025280000000", "capital_city": "Kyoto", "nga_code": "JP", "fao_country": "Japan", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 14, "name": "Northeast Asia", "subregions_list": "Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 467, "year_from": 1750, "year_to": 1750, "description": " During this period population census were carried out ‘However, the accuracy of such statistics varies greatly, as the surveys often neglected different demographics like members of the samurai household, children, and others’.§REF§Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.63.§REF§ A number of scholars have used various methods based on the census and other data to provide estimates that more accurately reflect the actual population. 22,000,000: 1600CE; 25,000,000: 1650CE; 29,000,000: 1700CE; 29,000,000: 1750CE; 28,000,000: 1800CE; 32,000,000: 1850; Population estimate by McEvedy and Jones based on census data chosen to code as it provides figures for the duration of the polity. §REF§McEvedy, C and Jones, R. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books. London.p.181§REF§ 26,065,425: 1721CE; 26,921,816: 1732CE; 26,153,450: 1744CE; 26,061,830: 1756CE; 26,010,600: 1780CE; 24,891,441: 1792CE; 25,517,729: 1804CE; 27,201,400: 1828CE; 27,063,907: 1834; 26,907,625: 1846; Based on census data summarized by (Totman 1993).§REF§Totman, Conrad. 1993. Early Modern Japan. University of California Press. Berkeley; London.p.251.§REF§ 15,000,000-17,000,000: 1600CE population estimate by Farris §REF§Farris, William Wayne. 2006. Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age. University of Hawaii Press.p.212.§REF§.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 29000000, "polity_population_to": 29000000, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "JpTokgw", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868, "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "new_name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Tokugawa period, also known as the Edo period, ran from 1603 to 1868 CE. Sometimes the slightly earlier start date of 1600 is chosen in recognition of Tokugawa Ieyasu's decisive victory at the Battle of Sekigahara; however, we have selected the 1603 date, which marks his official appointment as shogun. Although the emperor remained the official head of state, the Tokugawa shoguns ruled Japan. The rise to power of the Tokugawa Shogunate marked an end to the internal strife and warfare that had characterized the preceding century. Tokugawa Ieyasu and his immediate successors set about limiting the power of their rivals and instituting new policies aimed at maintaining stability and centralizing Japan's government. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 54) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ <br>The 'peak' of the Tokugawa period corresponds to the years between 1688 and 1704 CE, known as the Genroku period, which saw the development of a distinct urban culture and the proliferation of art, theatre and fiction. §REF§ (Totman 1993, 280) Conrad Totman. 1993. <i>Early Modern Japan</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ During the early modern period the Japanese polity consisted of three major islands: Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku. §REF§ (Totman 1993, 3-4) Conrad Totman. 1993. <i>Early Modern Japan</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>Eventually, economic difficulties and the threat of Western encroachment helped to bring about the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate. The period came to an end with the resignation of the last Tokugawa shogun in 1867 and the imperial restoration in 1868. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 12) William E. Deal. 2005. <i>Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Tokugawa shogunate built on the work of the generals Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582 CE) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598 CE), who between 1568 and 1590 succeeded in uniting all the daimyō (local military lords) under the command of a military leader into a 'national confederation'. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 1) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan</i>, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Theoretically, the daimyō maintained administrative authority in their own territories, but in practice they were expected to follow the guidance of the shogunate. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Tokugawa Ieyasu and his successors pursued a policy of 'orthodoxy and stability', §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ aimed at consolidating their own power and limiting the ability of their rivals to amass enough power or wealth to enable them to challenge the shogunate. The success of these policies enabled the Tokugawa family to preside over a period of peace and prosperity and rule Japan for the next 268 years. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 6) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan</i>, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ As well as peace, political stability and the centralization of power by the shoguns, the Tokugawa period was characterized by economic prosperity, rising urbanization and the closings of Japan's borders to the wider world in the 1630s. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 1, 6) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan</i>, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Theoretically, class was determined by birth and social mobility was prohibited. Influenced by Chinese models, the social order was formalized and essentially frozen in a hierarchy known as <i>shi-nō-kō-shō</i>, 'warrior-peasant-artisan-merchant'. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Despite the shogunate's concerted attempts to maintain a strict social orthodoxy, however, the stable and economically prosperous conditions led to a range of social changes, including increasing urbanization and the rise of the merchant class, who (although they were theoretically socially inferior) now held much of the country's wealth. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Now that there was no need for the majority of those of samurai rank to be actively engaged in military activities, the warrior class became bureaucratized, a development that went hand-in-hand with a romanticization of the warrior ideal and the codification of proper rules of behaviour. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ <br>During the Tokugawa period, population censuses were carried out. However, they did not take all members of the population into account and various scholars have therefore used supplementary data to produce what they hope are more accurate estimates. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 63) William E. Deal. 2005. <i>Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Estimates for the beginning of the period (1600 CE) range from around 15 §REF§ (Farris 2006, 212) William Wayne Farris. 2006. <i>Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age</i>. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. §REF§ to 22 §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ million. The population rose to around 30 million by the end of the period. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ §REF§ (Totman 1993, 251) Conrad Totman. 1993. <i>Early Modern Japan</i>. 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Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.63.§REF§ A number of scholars have used various methods based on the census and other data to provide estimates that more accurately reflect the actual population. 22,000,000: 1600CE; 25,000,000: 1650CE; 29,000,000: 1700CE; 29,000,000: 1750CE; 28,000,000: 1800CE; 32,000,000: 1850; Population estimate by McEvedy and Jones based on census data chosen to code as it provides figures for the duration of the polity. §REF§McEvedy, C and Jones, R. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books. London.p.181§REF§ 26,065,425: 1721CE; 26,921,816: 1732CE; 26,153,450: 1744CE; 26,061,830: 1756CE; 26,010,600: 1780CE; 24,891,441: 1792CE; 25,517,729: 1804CE; 27,201,400: 1828CE; 27,063,907: 1834; 26,907,625: 1846; Based on census data summarized by (Totman 1993).§REF§Totman, Conrad. 1993. Early Modern Japan. University of California Press. Berkeley; London.p.251.§REF§ 15,000,000-17,000,000: 1600CE population estimate by Farris §REF§Farris, William Wayne. 2006. Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age. University of Hawaii Press.p.212.§REF§.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 25000000, "polity_population_to": 25000000, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "JpTokgw", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868, "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "new_name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Tokugawa period, also known as the Edo period, ran from 1603 to 1868 CE. 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New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ <br>The 'peak' of the Tokugawa period corresponds to the years between 1688 and 1704 CE, known as the Genroku period, which saw the development of a distinct urban culture and the proliferation of art, theatre and fiction. §REF§ (Totman 1993, 280) Conrad Totman. 1993. <i>Early Modern Japan</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ During the early modern period the Japanese polity consisted of three major islands: Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku. §REF§ (Totman 1993, 3-4) Conrad Totman. 1993. <i>Early Modern Japan</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>Eventually, economic difficulties and the threat of Western encroachment helped to bring about the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate. The period came to an end with the resignation of the last Tokugawa shogun in 1867 and the imperial restoration in 1868. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 12) William E. Deal. 2005. <i>Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Tokugawa shogunate built on the work of the generals Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582 CE) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598 CE), who between 1568 and 1590 succeeded in uniting all the daimyō (local military lords) under the command of a military leader into a 'national confederation'. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 1) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan</i>, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Theoretically, the daimyō maintained administrative authority in their own territories, but in practice they were expected to follow the guidance of the shogunate. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Tokugawa Ieyasu and his successors pursued a policy of 'orthodoxy and stability', §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ aimed at consolidating their own power and limiting the ability of their rivals to amass enough power or wealth to enable them to challenge the shogunate. The success of these policies enabled the Tokugawa family to preside over a period of peace and prosperity and rule Japan for the next 268 years. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 6) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan</i>, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ As well as peace, political stability and the centralization of power by the shoguns, the Tokugawa period was characterized by economic prosperity, rising urbanization and the closings of Japan's borders to the wider world in the 1630s. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 1, 6) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan</i>, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Theoretically, class was determined by birth and social mobility was prohibited. Influenced by Chinese models, the social order was formalized and essentially frozen in a hierarchy known as <i>shi-nō-kō-shō</i>, 'warrior-peasant-artisan-merchant'. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Despite the shogunate's concerted attempts to maintain a strict social orthodoxy, however, the stable and economically prosperous conditions led to a range of social changes, including increasing urbanization and the rise of the merchant class, who (although they were theoretically socially inferior) now held much of the country's wealth. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Now that there was no need for the majority of those of samurai rank to be actively engaged in military activities, the warrior class became bureaucratized, a development that went hand-in-hand with a romanticization of the warrior ideal and the codification of proper rules of behaviour. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ <br>During the Tokugawa period, population censuses were carried out. However, they did not take all members of the population into account and various scholars have therefore used supplementary data to produce what they hope are more accurate estimates. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 63) William E. Deal. 2005. <i>Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Estimates for the beginning of the period (1600 CE) range from around 15 §REF§ (Farris 2006, 212) William Wayne Farris. 2006. <i>Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age</i>. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. §REF§ to 22 §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ million. 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Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.63.§REF§ A number of scholars have used various methods based on the census and other data to provide estimates that more accurately reflect the actual population. 22,000,000: 1600CE; 25,000,000: 1650CE; 29,000,000: 1700CE; 29,000,000: 1750CE; 28,000,000: 1800CE; 32,000,000: 1850; Population estimate by McEvedy and Jones based on census data chosen to code as it provides figures for the duration of the polity. §REF§McEvedy, C and Jones, R. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books. London.p.181§REF§ 26,065,425: 1721CE; 26,921,816: 1732CE; 26,153,450: 1744CE; 26,061,830: 1756CE; 26,010,600: 1780CE; 24,891,441: 1792CE; 25,517,729: 1804CE; 27,201,400: 1828CE; 27,063,907: 1834; 26,907,625: 1846; Based on census data summarized by (Totman 1993).§REF§Totman, Conrad. 1993. Early Modern Japan. University of California Press. Berkeley; London.p.251.§REF§ 15,000,000-17,000,000: 1600CE population estimate by Farris §REF§Farris, William Wayne. 2006. Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age. University of Hawaii Press.p.212.§REF§.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 28000000, "polity_population_to": 28000000, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "JpTokgw", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868, "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "new_name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Tokugawa period, also known as the Edo period, ran from 1603 to 1868 CE. 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Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Tokugawa shogunate built on the work of the generals Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582 CE) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598 CE), who between 1568 and 1590 succeeded in uniting all the daimyō (local military lords) under the command of a military leader into a 'national confederation'. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 1) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan</i>, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Theoretically, the daimyō maintained administrative authority in their own territories, but in practice they were expected to follow the guidance of the shogunate. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Tokugawa Ieyasu and his successors pursued a policy of 'orthodoxy and stability', §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ aimed at consolidating their own power and limiting the ability of their rivals to amass enough power or wealth to enable them to challenge the shogunate. The success of these policies enabled the Tokugawa family to preside over a period of peace and prosperity and rule Japan for the next 268 years. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 6) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan</i>, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ As well as peace, political stability and the centralization of power by the shoguns, the Tokugawa period was characterized by economic prosperity, rising urbanization and the closings of Japan's borders to the wider world in the 1630s. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 1, 6) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in <i>The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan</i>, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Theoretically, class was determined by birth and social mobility was prohibited. Influenced by Chinese models, the social order was formalized and essentially frozen in a hierarchy known as <i>shi-nō-kō-shō</i>, 'warrior-peasant-artisan-merchant'. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Despite the shogunate's concerted attempts to maintain a strict social orthodoxy, however, the stable and economically prosperous conditions led to a range of social changes, including increasing urbanization and the rise of the merchant class, who (although they were theoretically socially inferior) now held much of the country's wealth. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Now that there was no need for the majority of those of samurai rank to be actively engaged in military activities, the warrior class became bureaucratized, a development that went hand-in-hand with a romanticization of the warrior ideal and the codification of proper rules of behaviour. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. <i>A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower</i>. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ <br>During the Tokugawa period, population censuses were carried out. However, they did not take all members of the population into account and various scholars have therefore used supplementary data to produce what they hope are more accurate estimates. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 63) William E. Deal. 2005. <i>Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Estimates for the beginning of the period (1600 CE) range from around 15 §REF§ (Farris 2006, 212) William Wayne Farris. 2006. <i>Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age</i>. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. §REF§ to 22 §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ million. The population rose to around 30 million by the end of the period. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ §REF§ (Totman 1993, 251) Conrad Totman. 1993. <i>Early Modern Japan</i>. 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