Polity Population List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Populations.
GET /api/sc/polity-populations/?ordering=-note&page=47
{ "count": 467, "next": null, "previous": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/polity-populations/?ordering=-note&page=46", "results": [ { "id": 480, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " People. No evidence for hierarchical levels so the average quasi-polity unlikely to be more than one or two settlements. If largest settlement had a population about 1500 (150 per ha for 10 hectares) and we allow for some coordination with this settlement and some smaller outlying settlements then the largest quasi-polity may have been 2000-3000 people.<br>Sahel states = Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad. \"Before the introduction of agriculture and animal husbandry the population of the area of the present-day Sahel states is unlikely to have exceeded 50,000: once pastoralism and agriculture had become well-established the population can hardly have been less than half a million. The chronology of the transition is as yet totally obscure, but there is no reason to postulate anything above the 50,000 line before 3000 BC or place the achievement of the half million later than 1000 BC. From this latter point a low rate of increase is all that is needed to bring the total to 1m by AD 1 and 2m by AD 1000.\" §REF§(McEverdy and Jones 1978, 238)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 2000, "polity_population_to": 3000, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "MlJeJe2", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399, "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "new_name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The archaeological site of Jenne-jeno (or Djenné-djenno) is a mound located in the Niger Inland Delta, a region of West Africa just south of the Sahara and part of modern-day Mali, characterized by lakes and floodplains. It was continuously inhabited between 250 BCE and 1400 CE. 'Jenne-jeno II' refers to the period from 50 to 400 CE. During this time, the site's inhabitants fished, gathered wild plants, hunted, and cultivated rice (as well as millet and sorghum). They also made and used pottery, and smelted, smithed and used iron, though they probably imported the raw material for the latter from far afield. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>It appears that the heterarchical organization that characterized Jenne-jeno in later times developed during this period. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, xv) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ As for population, it is unclear how many people were living at Jenne-jeno or at the surrounding sites at this time, but a relatively rapid demographic increase is also likely. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. <i>Ancient Middle Niger</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 484, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " People. Songhai Empire covered a similar area to the Mali Empire apart from the West African coast (and inland).<br>Niane had 40-50 million for the Mali Empire.§REF§(Niane 1984, 154)§REF§ -- check (is reference correct? was it 4-5 million?). Yes, reference accurately reported. However, it might be a typographical error. Population of Mali in 1960 was 5 million. No references in literature to massive population crash or genocide in the region between middle ages and 1960.<br>McEvedy and Jones have the region of \"The Sahel States\" (Mauritania, Mali, Niger and Chad) at 2 million in 1000 CE, rising slowly to 3 million in 1500 CE. §REF§(McEvedy and Jones 1978, 239) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 4000000, "polity_population_to": 5000000, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "MlSong2", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591, "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "new_name": "ml_songhai_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "Third of the great West African empires, the Songhay Empire emerged from a small kingdom based in the Gao region, which was a tributary to the Mali Empire until it started to gain autonomy in the late 14th century CE. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 12) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ A Songhay leader named Sonyi Ali Beeri was responsible for transforming this polity into an expansionary empire from the late 15th century onwards. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 13) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ The heyday of the Songhay Empire was under the Askiya (or Askia) dynasty, 1493‒1591. These kings consolidated Songhay power by building on the legacy of their Malinke predecessors and took control of more territories, extending their reach over the Niger Inland Delta, westward to the Atlantic ocean, northward to the salt pans of Taghaza, and eastward to the Tuareg kingdom of Agadez. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 68) Roland Anthony Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 66) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ §REF§ (Diop 1987, 95) Cheikh Anta Diop. 1987. <i>Precolonial Black Africa</i>, translated by Harold Salemson. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. §REF§ However, the empire was brought to an abrupt end in the late 16th century: after a succession crisis which sparked a civil war, the Sultan of Morocco invaded in 1591. §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 17) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 196) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Unlike the preceding Ghana and Mali Empires, Songhay operated as a centralized unitary state. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 196) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The king was a revered figure but his authority was tempered by the precepts of Islam from the 11th century, and this religion became increasingly prevalent under the Askiya dynasty. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 196) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The imperial council coordinated the activities of the central government, which was divided into ministries including those of agriculture, finance, the army and the naval fleet. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 197) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The two major provinces, Kurmina in the west and Dendi in the southeast, were ruled by princes who were responsible for their own armies. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 199) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ Thriving trading towns like Jenné, Timbuktu, Teghazza and Walata enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy due to the power of guilds and local chiefs, but had to report to a superintendent, tax inspectors, customs officials and other state appointees. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 199) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ Vassal and tributary countries also bowed before the power of the Askiya when disputes arose. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 199) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br>The Songhay empire is associated with the establishment of high centres of learning in Jenné, Dia, Gao and Timbuktu. The latter in particular was famed for its university, holy men, doctors and teachers, who contributed to the spread of Islamic humanism among the urban elite in the region from the 15th century. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 208) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The rural Songhay continued to venerate a pantheon of divinities and local spirits until Islam penetrated the countryside via the peaceful incursions of traders and government-sponsored marabouts. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 207-08) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in <i>General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century</i>, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br>It is difficult to find substantiated population estimates for the Songhay Empire, but one scholar believes there could have been 70,000 people living in the city of Timbuktu by 1580 under Askiya Daoud. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 57) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 487, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Typical number of inhabitants of a polity.<br>The overall population of Mongolia during this period was 600,000-1,000,000 (Kradin 2002). Chinggiz Khan had 8 (check) thousand warriors in the decisive battle against Jamucha, who had roughly the same size of his force. 16,000 x 5 (est. average Mongol 'tent') = 80,000. Rounding this gives us an estimate of the population size of the larger polities in Mongolia (Rachewiltz 2004).<br>Because this NGA during this period was a quasi-polity, the codes refer to a typical large polity, such as Naimans, Kereids, Tatars, Merkids, and Mongols.<br>\"Around 1260 the total nomadic population of Central and Inner Asia, all of which was included in the Mongol empire at that time, would have been about 4,250,000. Two fifths of this, or 1.7 million people, would have been found in Outer or Inner Mongolia; one fifth, or 850,000 people, in the Chaghatay realm of Transoxania, Semirechye and parts of Jungaria and the Tarim Basin; one-fifth in the Juchids' domains in northern Central Asia and the North Caucasian and South Russian steppe; and the remaining fifth in the Middle East with Hulegu.\"§REF§(Wink 2002, 168) Wink, Andre. 2002. Al-Hind: The Slavic Kings and the Islamic conquest, 11th-13th centuries. BRILL.§REF§<br>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 80000, "polity_population_to": 120000, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "MnMongE", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206, "long_name": "Early Mongols", "new_name": "mn_mongol_early", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "According to Chinese records from the Tang dynasty (618-906), one of the nomadic Shiwei tribe was known as the Mengwu. This might be the earliest known reference to the Mongols. few centuries later, another Chinese document, this time dating to 1084, describes the \"Menggu\" as a remote tribe that paid tribute to the Khitan; they lived on a mixture of hunting and pastoralism, they were believed to wear fish skins, and their technology was largely made out of wood and bone because of the Khitans' (and, subsequently, the Jurchens') ban on the exportation of iron. With time, more clans joined the Mongols, such as the Jajirad and the Qonggirad. In the twelfth century, under Jurchen rule, the Mongols became one of the leading steppe tribes, and indeed they rebelled against the Jurchen. At first, the Mongols managed to score a number of victories, and for some time the Jurchen had no choice but to appease them through gifts such as cattle, grains, and silks. However, the Jurchen eventually gained the upper hand, capturing Mongol slaves through regular military expeditions between the 1160s and the 1190s, and forcing the Mongol rulers to pay frequent tribute. Chinggis Khan stopped the tributes in 1210. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 389-390) §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>At this time, the Mongols were divided into clans, and each clan belonged to either the Niru'un or the Dürlükin moiety. The Niru'un clans ruled the Dürlükin ones, though, due to traditional rules of exogamy, the Niru'un had to marry among the Dürlükin and vice versa. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 390-391) §REF§ <br>The overall population of Mongolia was 600,000-1,000,000. §REF§ (Kradin 2002) §REF§ Between 80,000 and 120,000 seems like a reasonable estimate for just the Mongols, who inhabited the region alongside similarly sized peoples, such as the Naimans, Kereids, Tatars, and Merkids.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 24, "name": "Orkhon Valley", "subregion": "Mongolia", "longitude": "102.845486000000", "latitude": "47.200757000000", "capital_city": "Karakorum", "nga_code": "MN", "fao_country": "Mongolia", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 9, "name": "Mongolia", "subregions_list": "Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 491, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " People. A range reflecting a similar magnitude as the estimate for the Later Xiongnu and Imperial Xiongnu Confederation.<br>500,000 Xianbi. \"The greater part of the ethnic Xianbei tribes was concentrated in the central and eastern areas of the steppe empire. This can be confirmed by the fact that the regions of eastern Mongolia and eastern Baikal (of the ‘left wing’) were areas of traditional residence of the Xianbei.\"§REF§(Kradin 2011, 200-201)§REF§<br>However, \"the imperial confederation was multi-ethnic\"§REF§(Kradin 2011, 200-201)§REF§ and by \"the end of the 2nd century AD not less than 100 thousand tents of the Xiongnu took the political identity of Xianbei (HHS 90.9b)\".§REF§(Kradin 2011, 200-201)§REF§ How many people to a tent? A family of 5 to a tent would add 500,000 to the total. There also were other ethnicities.§REF§(Kradin 2011, 200-201)§REF§<br>500,000: 160 CE (Xianbi only?)<br>\"The demography of the tribes was unequal. Thus, we have mentions of bu with five thousand people, several dozens thousand people, five thousand ‘households’ (about 25 thousand people), ten thousand soldiers and ten thousand tents (up to fifty thousand people); the largest had about twenty thousand ‘households’ - some one hundred thousand people (Kradin 1994; many comparative dates see in Cribb 1991).\" §REF§(Kradin 2011, 199)§REF§ \"Second, at the time of Tanshihuai, the strength of the Xianbei army reached one hundred thousand horsemen (Taskin 1984: 78). If one considers that all men were potentially warriors, and that the adult male population should amount to about 1/5 of the total population, one can assume that the total population was about half a million.\" §REF§(Kradin 2011, 201)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 1000000, "polity_population_to": 1500000, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "MnXianb", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250, "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "new_name": "mn_xianbei", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Orkhon Valley lies either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. Between about 100 and 250 CE, it was under the control of the Xianbei, pastoralists who also relied on hunting and, to a lesser extent, the cultivation of wheat, barley, and millet. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 223) §REF§ By 170 CE, the Xianbei empire extended 3,000 km along its east-west axis and 1,500 km along its north-south one, for a total of approximately 4,500,000 squared kilometers. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 223) §REF§ The most powerful Xianbei ruler, Tanshihuai (r. 136-181), divided his multiethnic empire into three parts (middle, eastern, and western); the nomadic peoples that occupied each part were ruled by the elders of the largest sites, though all elders were in turn subordinate to Tanshihuai himself. §REF§ (Kradin 2011, 200-201) §REF§ Not many population estimates could be found in the literature, though Kradin provides an estimate of about 500,000 people, based on the fact that, under Tanshihuai's rule, the Xianbei army included 100,000 horsemen: Kradin argues that a total population of 500,000 is possible because all adult men were likely potential warriors, and they likely made up one-fifth of the population. §REF§ (Kradin 2011, 201) §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 24, "name": "Orkhon Valley", "subregion": "Mongolia", "longitude": "102.845486000000", "latitude": "47.200757000000", "capital_city": "Karakorum", "nga_code": "MN", "fao_country": "Mongolia", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 9, "name": "Mongolia", "subregions_list": "Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 602, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " People.<br>Territory of \"Gana\" in 1000 CE included the Inland Delta region of Mali from Timbuktu to the tributaries/uplands, the eastern half of Mauritania and part of eastern Senegal.§REF§(Konemann et al 2010, 302 Atlas Historica, Editions Place des Victories. Paris.)§REF§ We need an estimate of the population within this region. Using the McEvedy and Jones figure of 2 million by 1000 CE for the \"Sahel States\" (Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad) I will estimate about 1 million.<br>\"Before the introduction of agriculture and animal husbandry the population of the area of the present-day Sahel states is unlikely to have exceeded 50,000: once pastoralism and agriculture had become well-established the population can hardly have been less than half a million. The chronology of the transition is as yet totally obscure, but there is no reason to postulate anything above the 50,000 line before 3000 BC or place the achievement of the half million later than 1000 BC. From this latter point a low rate of increase is all that is needed to bring the total to 1m by AD 1 and 2m by AD 1000.\" §REF§(McEvedy and Jones 1978, 238)§REF§<br>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 1000000, "polity_population_to": 1250000, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "MrWagdM", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077, "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "new_name": "mr_wagadu_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Kingdom of Ghana was the first documented empire of West Africa. Its dominant people, a northern Mande group known as the Soninke, called it 'Wagadu', §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 23) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ and Berber traders from the Sahara referred to it as 'Awkar'. §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 26) Basil Davidson. 1998. <i>West Africa before the Colonial Era</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ Spreading east and north from the Senegal River into modern-day Mauritania and Mali, §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 19) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ this polity started growing as a confederation from the 6th century CE. §REF§ Susan K. McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh. n.d. 'Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city'. Available online at <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500</a>.) §REF§ From the 8th century onwards, geographers from North Africa and Spain such as Ibn Hawqal began to document the existence of Ghana in Arabic texts, fantasizing about its gold and resources. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 11) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ The polity reached its peak in the mid-11th century: §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 34) Basil Davidson. 1998. <i>West Africa before the Colonial Era</i>. London: Routledge. §REF§ §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 33) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ at this stage, its influence spread over Awdaghust (or Aoudaghost) in the Sahara §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 32-33) David C. Conrad. 2010. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ and it encroached on the Niger Inland Delta. §REF§ (Niane 1975, n.p.) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ §REF§ (Simonis 2010, 36) Francis Simonis. 2010. <i>L'Afrique soudanaise au Moyen Age: Le temps des grands empires (Ghana, Mali, Songhaï)</i>. Aix-Marseille: CRDP de l'Académie d'Aix-Marseille. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Wagadu empire comprised four provinces administered by a central government. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 18) David C. Conrad. 2005. <i>Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay</i>. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ The king exerted direct authority over his kingdom; he was also head of the traditional religion and was revered as a god. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 32) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ Wagadu society was highly hierarchical, distinguishing between the elite warrior class and the rest of the population: professional artisans including smiths, weavers, dyers and shoemakers; farmers and herders; and slaves. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 32) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ These groups were further subdivided along clan lines. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 33) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ <br>This period was a prosperous one for the Sudanese region, which produced millet, maize, yam, groundnuts, cotton, indigo and other crops. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Linked into a thriving exchange sphere that stretched north to North Africa and the Mediterranean, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ the Sudanese population exported gold, slaves, hides, and ivory and imported copper, silver beads, dried fruit and cloth. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ All exports and imports were taxed by the centralized state. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 33) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. <i>Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle</i>. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ Trading outposts in Awdhagust and other Saharan towns facilitated fruitful exchange with Berbers and other groups from further afield. §REF§ (Meideros 1980, 160) Francois de Meideros. 1980. 'Les peuples du Soudan: Mouvements de populations', in <i>Histoire Générale de l'Afrique, Vol. 3: L'Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle</i>, edited by M. El Fasi, 143-64. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ <br>Population estimates are difficult to obtain for ancient Ghana. However, it is worth noting that its capital, the thriving trading city of Kumbi Saleh, covered 250 hectares and had a population of 15,000-20,000 people at its peak. §REF§ (Reader 1998, 280) John Reader. 1998. <i>Africa: A Biography of the Continent</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ Archaeological investigations at the site have revealed two-storey stone buildings which may have contained stores on the ground floor, narrow streets with densely packed houses, a mosque, and extensive cemeteries. §REF§ (Reader 1998, 280) John Reader. 1998. <i>Africa: A Biography of the Continent</i>. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 6, "name": "Niger Inland Delta", "subregion": "Sahel", "longitude": "-3.041703000000", "latitude": "16.717549000000", "capital_city": "Timbuctu", "nga_code": "ML", "fao_country": "Mali", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 7, "name": "West Africa", "subregions_list": "From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 497, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " People.<br>\"Table 3.10. Monte Alban Late I sites in Valley of Oaxaca subareas.\"§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2017, 40) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2017. Settlement Patterns in the Albarradas Area of Highland Oaxaca, Mexico: Frontiers, Boundaries, and Interaction. Fieldiana Anthropology, 46(1):1-162. Publication 1572. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-46.1.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-46.1.1</a>§REF§<br>Etla: 10618; Central (contains Monte Alban): 22844; N Valle Grande: 8581; S Valle Grande: 2633; W Tlacolula: 4344; E Tlacolula: 2317; Ejutla: 3455; Albarradas: 1740; Sola: 1539.§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2017, 40) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2017. Settlement Patterns in the Albarradas Area of Highland Oaxaca, Mexico: Frontiers, Boundaries, and Interaction. Fieldiana Anthropology, 46(1):1-162. Publication 1572. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-46.1.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-46.1.1</a>§REF§<br>Total = 58,071<br>Late I early population tripled to 55,000. About 75% of increase within 20 km of Monte Alban.§REF§(Blanton, Feinman, Kowalewski, Nicholas 1999, 92) Blanton, Richard E. Feinman, Gary M. Kowalewski, Stephen A. Nicholas, Linda M. 1999. Ancient Oaxaca. The Monte Alban State. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§<br>The approximate figure 50,000 corresponds to the estimated population of the Valley of Oaxaca during the Monte Albán Ic phase by the Settlement Pattern Project§REF§Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p144-5§REF§, although it is not clear whether the entire valley was under Zapotec control at this time.§REF§Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p162§REF§ The population estimate does not include the population of the conquered area Canada Cuicatlan.<br>\"Table 11.3. Population in the largest centers, by phase, in Oaxaca and Ejutla.\"§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 183) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§<br>Valley of Oaxaca population (Largest center in Oaxaca): Tierras Largas: 327 (128); San Jose: 1942 (1384); Guadalupe: 1788 (774); Rosario: 1835 (564); Early I: 14652 (5250); Late I: 51339 (17242); Monte Alban II: 41927 (14492); Monte Alban IIIA: 120121 (16507); Monte Alban IIIB: 78930 (24189); Monte Alban IV: 77612 (16117); Monte Alban V: 166467 (13831).§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 183) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 50000, "polity_population_to": 60000, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "MxAlb1L", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100, "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "new_name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Monte Albán Late I period ran from 300 to 100 BCE. Archaeologists Charles Spencer and Elsa Redmond argue that the Zapotecs had formed a state by the beginning of this period (around 300 BCE). §REF§ (Spencer and Redmond 2004, 176) Charles S. Spencer and Elsa M. Redmond. 2004. 'Primary State Formation in Mesoamerica'. <i>Annual Review of Anthropology</i> 33: 173-99. §REF§ The Zapotec polity based at Monte Albán started to expand to areas outside the valley at the beginning of this period, but could not yet control all areas within the Valley of Oaxaca. §REF§ (Redmond and Spencer 2013, E1707-15) Elsa M. Redmond and Charles S. Spencer. 2013. 'Early (300-100 BC) Temple Precinct in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico'. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> 110 (19): E1707-15. §REF§ It is thought that the unification of the whole valley by the Zapotec state did not occur until the following period (Monte Albán II). §REF§ (Spencer and Redmond 2004, 176) Charles S. Spencer and Elsa M. Redmond. 2004. 'Primary State Formation in Mesoamerica'. <i>Annual Review of Anthropology</i> 33: 173-99. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>There is evidence of an elite during this period. However, the nature of government is still unclear, as is the relationship between elites and non-elites. §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1999, 127-28) Richard E. Blanton, Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski and Linda M. Nicholas. 1999. <i>Ancient Oaxaca</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Richard Blanton et al. summarize the situation: 'Obviously, powerful authorities at Monte Albán could collect taxes, wage wars, engage in diplomacy, erect carved stone monuments, construct public buildings, manage urban problems, appropriate surpluses from producer households, and adjudicate disputes. But who were these authorities and how did they come to positions of power? Were there rulers or a governing council?' §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1999, 127-28) Richard E. Blanton, Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski and Linda M. Nicholas. 1999. <i>Ancient Oaxaca</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Violent conflicts were rife, and one third of the population of the valley eventually moved to fortified or defensible settlements by the end of Monte Albán I (including Monte Albán itself, which had a three-kilometre defensive wall and was built on a defensible hill top). §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 150) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. <i>Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley</i>. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The <i>danzantes</i>, or carved images of captives, date to the first Monte Albán phases (MA Early-Late I) and may be linked with the expansionist policies and propaganda of Zapotec leaders. It is also worth noting that the richest burials date to this period and, like the danzantes, may be linked with an expression and justification of power by Zapotec elites. §REF§ (Flannery and Marcus 1983, 90) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1983. 'The Earliest Public Buildings, Tombs, and Monuments at Monte Albán, with Notes on the Internal Chronology of Period I', in <i>The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations</i>, edited by Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery, 87-91. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ <br>The population of the Zapotec polity grew during this period, particularly at Monte Albán, which housed around 17,000 people, and many new settlements were established within a roughly 30-kilometre radius of Monte Albán. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 139, 145) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. <i>Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley</i>. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ This was part of a general trend of population nucleation during this period, particularly to sites with civic-ceremonial functions. §REF§ (Feinman et al. 1985, 349) Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski, Laura Finsten, Richard E. Blanton and Linda Nicholas. 1985. 'Long-Term Demographic Change: A Perspective from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico'. <i>Journal of Field Archaeology</i> 12 (3): 333-62. §REF§ The entire population of the Valley of Oaxaca during the Monte Albán IC phase has been estimated at around 50,000, §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 144-45) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. <i>Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley</i>. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ although it is not clear whether the entire valley was under Zapotec control at this time. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 162) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. <i>Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley</i>. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 26, "name": "Valley of Oaxaca", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-96.761022000000", "latitude": "17.041135000000", "capital_city": "Monte Alban", "nga_code": "OAX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 508, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " people. Sanders et al. (1979) tentatively estimated that there were approx. 5,000 people in the Basin of Mexico at the end of the Early Formative Period c.1150 BC, and approx. 25,000 people in the Basin of Mexico at the end of the Middle Formative Period c.650 BC.§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 183.§REF§ In a recent personal communication, David Carballo suggests Chalcatzingo as the largest settlement in this period, with a rough population estimate of \"3-5k\" These estimates are \"tentative\" because they involve numerous arbitrary estimations. Not only were non-surveyed areas' populations guessed at, but Early and Middle Formative cermaics were mis-diagnosed in the BOM archaeological surveys, and subsequent re-evaluations of the survey ceramic collections by Tolstoy indicated that numerous Early Formative sites were embedded within Middle Formative sites (but their physical extent was no longer calculable).§REF§Tolstoy, Paul, Suzanne K. Fish, Martin W. Boksenbaum, Kathryn Blair Vaughn and C. Earle Smith. (1977). \"Early Sedentary Communities of the Basin of Mexico.\" <i>Journal of Field Archaeology</i>, 4(1): 91-106.§REF§§REF§Tolstoy, Paul. (1975) \"Settlement and Population Trends in the Basin of Mexico (Ixtapaluca and Zacatenco Phases)\" <i>Journal of Field Archaeology, 2(4): 331-349.</i>§REF§ Revisions of the Formative survey data based on Tolstoy's findings have not been published. Additionally, Tolstoy, Fish, and Niederberger have found a poor correspondence between subsurface remains and surface scatters' density and extent, leading to systematic underestimation of Formative sites' areas and populations.§REF§Paul Tolstoy. (1989) \"Coapexco and Tlatilco: sites with Olmec material in the Basin of Mexico\", In <i>Regional Perspectives on the Olmec</i>, Robert J. Sharer & David C. Grove (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 87-121.§REF§§REF§Tolstoy, Paul and Suzanne K. Fish. (1975) \"Surface and Subsurface Evidence for Community Size at Coapexco, Mexico.\" <i>Journal of Field Archaeology</i>, 2(1/2): 97-104§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (2000) \"Ranked Societies, Iconographic Complexity, and Economic Wealth in the Basin of Mexico Toward 1200 BC.\" In Olmec Art and Archaeology in Mesoamerica, edited by John E. Clark and Mary E. Pye. New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 169-192.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": null, "polity_population_to": null, "polity": { "id": 9, "name": "MxFormM", "start_year": -800, "end_year": -401, "long_name": "Middle Formative Basin of Mexico", "new_name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_4", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Middle Formative period (c. 800-401 BCE). This period was characterised by increasingly widespread and elaborate public architecture, more distinctive regional pottery styles, more extensive greenstone trade, and an increased use of stone for symbolic expression. Together, these trends suggest that elites across Mesoamerica were broadening the ways they expressed their power, and shaping the emergence of new forms of regional and community interactions in the process. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 181) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6</a>. §REF§ <br>Sanders et al. (1979) tentatively estimated that there were approximately 25,000 people in the Basin of Mexico around 650 BC. §REF§ Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 183. §REF§ However, no estimates could be found for the population of the average autonomous political unit. The largest known settlement, Chalcatzingo, may have had a population of between 3,000 and 5,000. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to G. Nazzaro and E. Cioni) §REF§ <br>Settlement hierarchies either maintained or increased the number of levels. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 181) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6</a>. §REF§ <br><br/>", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 27, "name": "Basin of Mexico", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-99.130000000000", "latitude": "19.430000000000", "capital_city": "Ciudad de Mexico", "nga_code": "MX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }