Polity Population List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Populations.
GET /api/sc/polity-populations/?format=api&ordering=name
{ "count": 467, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/polity-populations/?format=api&ordering=name&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 719, "year_from": 1910, "year_to": 1910, "description": "People. “According to the 1910 census, which included Bosnia-Herzegovina, the monarchy had a population of 51,390,000, greater than that of France. Of that total, 28,572,000 lived in Cisleithania, 20,886,000 in Hungary, and 1,932,000 in Bosnia-Herzegovina.”§REF§(Curtis 2013: 296) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-02-13T17:03:06.609252Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 51390000, "polity_population_to": 51390000, "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918, "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "new_name": "at_habsburg_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ended the Thirty Years' War, the Habsburgs faced the task of consolidating their fragmented territories, this era was marked by a series of succession wars, reflecting the Habsburgs' quest for territorial expansion and dynastic security.§REF§Arndt, Der Dreißigjährige Krieg.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PULFEDKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PULFEDKX</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\nThe beginning of the period saw the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1714), a conflict over the vast inheritance of the Spanish Habsburgs. The war ended with the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt, which, while ceding the Spanish throne to the Bourbon Philip of Anjou, granted the Austrian Habsburgs significant territories in Italy and the Netherlands, reshaping the European balance of power.§REF§Schnettger, Der Spanische Erbfolgekrieg.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HK6DTTSH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HK6DTTSH</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nIn mid-18th century the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) challenged Maria Theresa's right to her father's throne. Despite initial setbacks, including the loss of Silesia to Prussia, Maria Theresa confirmed her rule and laid the foundation for the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty.§REF§(Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Kriegsarchiv)<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WC966X6J\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WC966X6J</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Seven Years' War (1756-1763) further tested the Habsburg power, as Maria Theresa sought to reclaim Silesia and counter Prussia’s rise. This global conflict, stretching from the heart of Europe to distant colonies, ended without altering the Silesian status quo but significantly realigned international alliances, setting the stage for future confrontations.§REF§Danley and Speelman, The Seven Years’ War.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AE3M256H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AE3M256H</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nAt the end of the 18th century, the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778-1779) once again pitted the Habsburgs against Prussia, this time over the strategic region of Bavaria on the question of succession to the Electorate of Bavaria after the extinction of the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Teschen with only minor gains for the Habsburg monarchy.\r\n§REF§Michael Kotulla, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte: vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495 - 1934).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U84B9DNB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: U84B9DNB</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\nIn the 19th century, the Habsburg Empire faced the challenge of Napoleonic France which resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the establishment of the Austrian Empire in 1804, Francis II became Francis I, Emperor of Austria.§REF§“Germany - Prussia, Napoleon, Reunification | Britannica.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F52JWVA3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F52JWVA3</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Congress of Vienna in 1815 which laid the foundation of the post Napoleonic order in central Europe. further redefined the Habsburg realm, securing its status as a great power.§REF§Heinz Duchhardt, Der Wiener Kongress: die Neugestaltung Europas 1814/15.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KQ7ZZYPE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KQ7ZZYPE</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe revolutionary period of 1848, with its calls for liberalization and nationalism, profoundly challenged the imperial status quo, revealing the deep-seated tensions within its multi-ethnic composition.§REF§Dowe, Haupt, and Langewiesche, Europa 1848.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZDEFI38W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZDEFI38W</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nIn response to these internal upheavals and the growing nationalist movements, “the Ausgleich” of 1867 with Hungary marked a pivotal compromise. This agreement gave rise to the Dual Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (“k. u. k.-Monarchie).\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n“The Ausgleich (“compromise”) reached with Hungary in 1867 was a major concession for Franz Joseph, and it created the so-called dualist Austria-Hungary that existed until 1918… The arrangement was dualist because it was not federalist. Rather than parceling out the monarchy into a structure in which the Austro-German lands, the Czech lands, Galicia, and Hungary-Croatia would all have roughly equal weight, it was divided simply into two, the Hungarian half and the Austrian half. This latter was not really called “Austria” but rather “Cisleithania,” meaning “beyond the Leitha River,” which was the border between Austria and Hungary. The formal name of the Cisleithanian half was “the countries and realms represented in the Reichsrat,” which gives some indication of the insubstantial basis for common identity of those territories. The governmental link between these two halves was also minimal. Foreign and military policy belonged almost exclusively to Franz Joseph. He retained the power to appoint and dismiss ministers, who thus had only a partial responsibility to parliament, and he could reject laws passed by the Reichsrat. There was a joint financial ministry and tariff regime. But details such as Hungary’s share of the budget could be renegotiated every decade, which led to repeated political conflicts in the years ahead, so dualism’s division of powers was by no means entirely clear. Nearly everything else was separate. There were distinct parliaments for the Cisleithanian and Hungarian halves, and each half had its own administrative, legal, and school systems. The realm was designated as kaiserlich (“imperial”) for the Austrian Empire of Cisleithania and königlich (“royal”) for the Kingdom of Hungary. In practice, dualism meant that the Austro-Germans dominated the other peoples in their half, and the Hungarians the other peoples in theirs. In many ways, Hungary’s weight within the Dual Monarchy only grew after 1867, thanks to economic advances that in turn fed into greater assertiveness on the part of the Magyar elite… Ultimately, even the Austro-Germans and the Hungarians disliked dualism. The former resented Hungarians’ disproportionate weight in the monarchy, while the latter constantly pushed for more autonomy and resisted any changes that would reduce their weight. And virtually all the other national groups detested the arrangement because it unfairly excluded them.” §REF§Berger, Der Österreichisch-ungarische Ausgleich von 1867.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7SEQIFJ2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7SEQIFJ2</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n“By the summer of 1918 the Habsburg dynasty’s death knell was ringing… Karl presided impotently over the progressive hollowing out of the whole monarchical state until there was almost nothing left that he actually governed. At the end of October the nearly 400-year-old monarchy dissolved in a matter of weeks. Karl issued a proposal for federalization on 16 October, but he and his idea were already irrelevant by that point. Gyula Andrássy, the last foreign minister of Austria-Hungary, said that the implicit logic behind the final, futile moves taken by the leadership was that “so that no one can kill us, we’ll commit suicide.” The initiative was instead firmly in the hands of the various national groups. On 18 October Romanians in Hungary called for union with the Kingdom of Romania. On the 21st the Germans of the monarchy declared their right to self-determination. On the 28th the Czech National Council declared independence, and on the 30th the new Czechoslovakia was officially formed. On the 29th the Croatian parliament formally dissolved its connections to Austria and Hungary and pledged to join the new Yugoslav kingdom. On the 31st the Ruthenians in Galicia announced their secession. On 1 November the Hungarians proclaimed their ties to the monarchy ended, followed ten days later by Galicia joining the new Polish republic. As all this was happening, Karl was still working at his desk in Schönbrunn, but the palace was mostly empty. Only a few loyal servants remained, since even his bodyguards had left. Finally on 11 November Karl signed papers that he was “temporarily” giving up his powers. He never formally abdicated but went into exile, first in Switzerland. Karl twice tried to retake the throne in Hungary in 1921, but after these unsuccessful attempts he was removed by the British to Madeira, where he died in 1922.”§REF§“Das Ende der Monarchie,” Die Welt der Habsburger, accessed February 4, 2024, https://www.habsburger.net/de/kapitel/das-ende-der-monarchie.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G9K39WS5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G9K39WS5</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-12T09:42:59.315585Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 736, "year_from": 1989, "year_to": null, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-11-22T18:49:36.202708Z", "modified_date": "2023-11-22T18:59:55.899301Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 262084654, "polity_population_to": 286730817, "polity": { "id": 601, "name": "ru_soviet_union", "start_year": 1918, "end_year": 1991, "long_name": "Soviet Union", "new_name": "ru_soviet_union", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-12-12T15:11:33.853424Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 697, "year_from": 750, "year_to": 750, "description": " People.", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 60000, "polity_population_to": 60000, "polity": { "id": 591, "name": "gt_tikal_late_classic", "start_year": 555, "end_year": 869, "long_name": "Late Classic Tikal", "new_name": "gt_tikal_late_classic", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>“Tikal is located in the Petén district, Guatemala, on top of an escarpment (250 m asl) surrounded by swampy areas to the west and east, earthworks to the north and south ( Jones et al. 1981), and large tracts of fertile land (Fedick and Ford 1990).1 It is one of the best-known and largest Maya centers (Figure 6.1). Since it is not near lakes or rivers, its inhabitants relied on several complex reservoir systems to offset seasonal water shortages (Scarborough and Gallopin 1991), which are found next to temples and royal palaces. The central core (9 km2) consists of a densely built landscape of public and private monumental and nonmonumental architecture (ca. 235 structures/km2)… Tikal was ruled by a “holy” or “divine” king (k’ul ahaw), who implemented tribute demands. Tikal has inscriptions, its own emblem glyph, water symbolism, palaces, royal funerary temples, large ball courts, and tall temples facing large and open plazas (e.g., Temple IV is 65 m tall). Its monumental complexes are connected via sacbeob (causeways). The earliest inscribed stela in the southern Maya lowlands (Stela 29, ad 292) is found at Tikal, and it has one of the longest dynastic histories in the Maya area (last known inscribed date: ad 869).”§REF§(Lucero 2006: 162) Lucero, Lisa J. 2006. Water and Ritual: The Rise and Fall of Classic Maya Rulers. Austin: University of Texas Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NSX2SNWU§REF§<br>“No sight gives a better impression of the past glories of Maya civilisation than the towering ruins of Tikal. At its 8th-century peak a score of red-painted pyramids dominated the heart of a dispersed metropolis housing as many as 60,000 people. It claimed a dynastic succession of at leasr 33 rulers, spanning as long as 800 years… A survivor of the Preclassic collapse, Tikal became a crucible of the new lowland Classic tradition, with a dynasty in place as early as the 1st century AD. Towards the end of the 4th century it fell, like many other pans of Mesoamerica at the time, under the sway of the Mexican superpower Teotihuacan. If anything. the fused Mexican-Maya dynasty that resulted only consolidated Tikal's leading position in the region. But an erosion of its strength in the 6th century led to its defeat and conquest and a resulting 'dark age' of troubles lasting 130 years. Its fortunes were restored late in the 7th century and it resumed a key position in the Maya world until the general unravelling of Classic civilization 150 years later.”§REF§(Martin and Grube 2000: 25) Martin, Simon and Grube, Nikolai. 2000. Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London; New York: Thames & Hudson. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5WIIDVRJ§REF§<br>“By the end of the 9th century Tikal had experienced a fate shared with its peers across the Maya realm. With all vestiges of royal power gone and deserted by the bulk of its population, its elite quarters were taken over by squatters and simple thatched homes sprang up on its ceremonial plazas. These late inhabitants pursued their own, often elaborate, ritual activities, moving and reusing earlier monuments for purposes quite estranged from those of the fallen nobility. By Tikal’s last days, any regard for the sanctity of the old order had long since dissolved and the North Acropolis was mined in search of its terms and their jade riches. The more accessible were discovered and ransacked. Finally abandoned in the 10th or 11th century, the forest completed its takeover of the city, choking it with root and vine for the next Millennium.”§REF§(Martin and Grube 2000: 53) Martin, Simon and Grube, Nikolai. 2000. Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London; New York: Thames & Hudson. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5WIIDVRJ§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-10-18T14:26:19.121691Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 704, "year_from": 1848, "year_to": 1848, "description": " “At Leopold’s death [1790], the monarchy’s population of 26 million people made it the second largest in Europe. Hungary accounted for nearly half that total, with the Bohemian crownlands and the Austrian territories adding another 20 percent each.”§REF§(Curtis 2013: 244) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92§REF§ “In the immediate aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, Imperial Austria counted some 30 million people inside its new borders. During the next thirty years the population grew rapidly at an annual rate of at least 1 percent as increased agricultural productivity especially in the Hereditary Lands and Bohemia made it possible to feed an expanding population.”§REF§(Judson 2016: 112) Judson, Pieter M. 2016. The Habsburg Empire: A New History. Cambridge, USA; London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BN5TQZBW§REF§ “This robust economic growth was unavoidably attended by important social changes. The population increased significantly, with the monarchy reaching a total of nearly 34 million inhabitants by 1848.”§REF§(Curtis 2013: 257) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92§REF§ ", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 34000000, "polity_population_to": 34000000, "polity": { "id": 567, "name": "at_habsburg_2", "start_year": 1649, "end_year": 1918, "long_name": "Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II", "new_name": "at_habsburg_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ended the Thirty Years' War, the Habsburgs faced the task of consolidating their fragmented territories, this era was marked by a series of succession wars, reflecting the Habsburgs' quest for territorial expansion and dynastic security.§REF§Arndt, Der Dreißigjährige Krieg.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PULFEDKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PULFEDKX</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\nThe beginning of the period saw the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1714), a conflict over the vast inheritance of the Spanish Habsburgs. The war ended with the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt, which, while ceding the Spanish throne to the Bourbon Philip of Anjou, granted the Austrian Habsburgs significant territories in Italy and the Netherlands, reshaping the European balance of power.§REF§Schnettger, Der Spanische Erbfolgekrieg.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HK6DTTSH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HK6DTTSH</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nIn mid-18th century the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) challenged Maria Theresa's right to her father's throne. Despite initial setbacks, including the loss of Silesia to Prussia, Maria Theresa confirmed her rule and laid the foundation for the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty.§REF§(Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Kriegsarchiv)<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WC966X6J\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WC966X6J</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Seven Years' War (1756-1763) further tested the Habsburg power, as Maria Theresa sought to reclaim Silesia and counter Prussia’s rise. This global conflict, stretching from the heart of Europe to distant colonies, ended without altering the Silesian status quo but significantly realigned international alliances, setting the stage for future confrontations.§REF§Danley and Speelman, The Seven Years’ War.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AE3M256H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AE3M256H</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nAt the end of the 18th century, the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778-1779) once again pitted the Habsburgs against Prussia, this time over the strategic region of Bavaria on the question of succession to the Electorate of Bavaria after the extinction of the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Teschen with only minor gains for the Habsburg monarchy.\r\n§REF§Michael Kotulla, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte: vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495 - 1934).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U84B9DNB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: U84B9DNB</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\nIn the 19th century, the Habsburg Empire faced the challenge of Napoleonic France which resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the establishment of the Austrian Empire in 1804, Francis II became Francis I, Emperor of Austria.§REF§“Germany - Prussia, Napoleon, Reunification | Britannica.”<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F52JWVA3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: F52JWVA3</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe Congress of Vienna in 1815 which laid the foundation of the post Napoleonic order in central Europe. further redefined the Habsburg realm, securing its status as a great power.§REF§Heinz Duchhardt, Der Wiener Kongress: die Neugestaltung Europas 1814/15.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KQ7ZZYPE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KQ7ZZYPE</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nThe revolutionary period of 1848, with its calls for liberalization and nationalism, profoundly challenged the imperial status quo, revealing the deep-seated tensions within its multi-ethnic composition.§REF§Dowe, Haupt, and Langewiesche, Europa 1848.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZDEFI38W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZDEFI38W</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\nIn response to these internal upheavals and the growing nationalist movements, “the Ausgleich” of 1867 with Hungary marked a pivotal compromise. This agreement gave rise to the Dual Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (“k. u. k.-Monarchie).\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n“The Ausgleich (“compromise”) reached with Hungary in 1867 was a major concession for Franz Joseph, and it created the so-called dualist Austria-Hungary that existed until 1918… The arrangement was dualist because it was not federalist. Rather than parceling out the monarchy into a structure in which the Austro-German lands, the Czech lands, Galicia, and Hungary-Croatia would all have roughly equal weight, it was divided simply into two, the Hungarian half and the Austrian half. This latter was not really called “Austria” but rather “Cisleithania,” meaning “beyond the Leitha River,” which was the border between Austria and Hungary. The formal name of the Cisleithanian half was “the countries and realms represented in the Reichsrat,” which gives some indication of the insubstantial basis for common identity of those territories. The governmental link between these two halves was also minimal. Foreign and military policy belonged almost exclusively to Franz Joseph. He retained the power to appoint and dismiss ministers, who thus had only a partial responsibility to parliament, and he could reject laws passed by the Reichsrat. There was a joint financial ministry and tariff regime. But details such as Hungary’s share of the budget could be renegotiated every decade, which led to repeated political conflicts in the years ahead, so dualism’s division of powers was by no means entirely clear. Nearly everything else was separate. There were distinct parliaments for the Cisleithanian and Hungarian halves, and each half had its own administrative, legal, and school systems. The realm was designated as kaiserlich (“imperial”) for the Austrian Empire of Cisleithania and königlich (“royal”) for the Kingdom of Hungary. In practice, dualism meant that the Austro-Germans dominated the other peoples in their half, and the Hungarians the other peoples in theirs. In many ways, Hungary’s weight within the Dual Monarchy only grew after 1867, thanks to economic advances that in turn fed into greater assertiveness on the part of the Magyar elite… Ultimately, even the Austro-Germans and the Hungarians disliked dualism. The former resented Hungarians’ disproportionate weight in the monarchy, while the latter constantly pushed for more autonomy and resisted any changes that would reduce their weight. And virtually all the other national groups detested the arrangement because it unfairly excluded them.” §REF§Berger, Der Österreichisch-ungarische Ausgleich von 1867.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7SEQIFJ2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 7SEQIFJ2</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\n\r\n“By the summer of 1918 the Habsburg dynasty’s death knell was ringing… Karl presided impotently over the progressive hollowing out of the whole monarchical state until there was almost nothing left that he actually governed. At the end of October the nearly 400-year-old monarchy dissolved in a matter of weeks. Karl issued a proposal for federalization on 16 October, but he and his idea were already irrelevant by that point. Gyula Andrássy, the last foreign minister of Austria-Hungary, said that the implicit logic behind the final, futile moves taken by the leadership was that “so that no one can kill us, we’ll commit suicide.” The initiative was instead firmly in the hands of the various national groups. On 18 October Romanians in Hungary called for union with the Kingdom of Romania. On the 21st the Germans of the monarchy declared their right to self-determination. On the 28th the Czech National Council declared independence, and on the 30th the new Czechoslovakia was officially formed. On the 29th the Croatian parliament formally dissolved its connections to Austria and Hungary and pledged to join the new Yugoslav kingdom. On the 31st the Ruthenians in Galicia announced their secession. On 1 November the Hungarians proclaimed their ties to the monarchy ended, followed ten days later by Galicia joining the new Polish republic. As all this was happening, Karl was still working at his desk in Schönbrunn, but the palace was mostly empty. Only a few loyal servants remained, since even his bodyguards had left. Finally on 11 November Karl signed papers that he was “temporarily” giving up his powers. He never formally abdicated but went into exile, first in Switzerland. Karl twice tried to retake the throne in Hungary in 1921, but after these unsuccessful attempts he was removed by the British to Madeira, where he died in 1922.”§REF§“Das Ende der Monarchie,” Die Welt der Habsburger, accessed February 4, 2024, https://www.habsburger.net/de/kapitel/das-ende-der-monarchie.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G9K39WS5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G9K39WS5</b></a>§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-03-12T09:42:59.315585Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 15, "name": "Central Europe", "subregions_list": "Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 732, "year_from": 1939, "year_to": 1959, "description": "The 1926 Soviet Union census, a comprehensive demographic survey, provided crucial insights into the population size and composition of the newly formed Soviet state. It captured detailed data on various aspects including age, gender, ethnicity, occupation, and literacy rates, painting a multifaceted picture of the society at that time. This data was pivotal in shaping subsequent economic and social policies within the Soviet Union.§REF§Всесоюзная перепись населения 17 декабря 1926 г (Издание ЦСУ Союза ССР, 1928).<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JQGM8H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: T9JQGM8H</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\nIn twelve years the urban population more than doubled, reaching 56.1 million (33 percent of the total population) by 1939, a rate of urbanization historically without precedent. In terms of the economic structure of the working class, the share of workers and employees (along with their family members) reached half of the total population by 1939, up from roughly one-sixth in 1926. The virtually complete collectivization of farming was also indicated by census figures.\r\n\r\nWhile the 1939 Soviet census has not been widely utilized, it nevertheless provided a framework of organizational experience and added to a popular understanding of statistical methods. These developments helped especially in conducting the numerous emergency survey counts that were necessary during World War II.\r\n\r\nTwenty years passed before another comprehensive census took place on Soviet soil, on January 15, 1959. The date chosen at least allowed for comparisons by twenty-year intervals, and the published tables often included previously unreleased 1939 totals as well. However, the large territorial gains following World War II and the devastating effect that war losses had on the age and sex structure of the population made comparisons between census years quite difficult. Furthermore, unlike the Soviet censuses of 1920 and 1926, the 1959 questionnaire did not request information on place of birth, making difficult even a crude estimate of migration. The organization and administration of the population count in 1959 marked a standardization in Soviet census-taking procedures; most of the methods instituted in 1959 remained virtually unchanged for the succeeding Soviet censuses of 1970 and 1979.§REF§Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses (Cornell University Press, 1986), accessed November 22, 2023, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt1g69xfv.\r\n<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EPDK4KRV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EPDK4KRV</b></a>§REF§\r\n\r\nThe 1989 Soviet census was the last one that took place in the Soviet Union. In 1989, the Soviet Union ranked as the third most populous in the world, above the United States.§REF§“Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Справочник Статистических Показателей.,” accessed November 22, 2023, https://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/pril.php.<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MZMZFQN2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MZMZFQN2</b></a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-11-22T18:26:17.994586Z", "modified_date": "2023-12-04T17:19:58.383917Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 147027915, "polity_population_to": 170557093, "polity": { "id": 601, "name": "ru_soviet_union", "start_year": 1918, "end_year": 1991, "long_name": "Soviet Union", "new_name": "ru_soviet_union", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-12-12T15:11:33.853424Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 735, "year_from": 1970, "year_to": 1989, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-11-22T18:46:44.118296Z", "modified_date": "2023-11-22T18:46:44.118311Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 241720134, "polity_population_to": 262084654, "polity": { "id": 601, "name": "ru_soviet_union", "start_year": 1918, "end_year": 1991, "long_name": "Soviet Union", "new_name": "ru_soviet_union", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-12-12T15:11:33.853424Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 700, "year_from": 1601, "year_to": 1601, "description": " People. English population totals taken from John Guy, Tudor England.§REF§(Guy 1988: 32) Guy, John. 1988. Tudor England. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IIFAUUNA§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 4100000, "polity_population_to": 4100000, "polity": { "id": 302, "name": "GBEnglK", "start_year": 1486, "end_year": 1689, "long_name": "Tudor and Early Stuart England", "new_name": "gb_england_tudor_and_early_stuart", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>This polity begins with the start of the Tudor dynasty, commencing with Henry VII’s reign, and runs until the end of the Glorious Revolution in 1689.<br>This period incorporates immense changes in technology, science, medicine, demographics as well as seeing the creation of the British Empire and its widespread colonisation of countries around the world.<br>§REF§(Bucholz et al: 2013) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-11-20T11:00:19.485587Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 20, "name": "Western Europe", "subregions_list": "British Isles, France, Low Countries", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 687, "year_from": 1920, "year_to": 1920, "description": " The population of Mexico grew steadily between 1810-1920. §REF§(“Data on Mexico,”) “Data on Mexico,” Clio Infra, accessed September 8, 2022, https://clio-infra.eu/Countries/Mexico.html. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9DPFMY2T§REF§ ", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 14900000, "polity_population_to": 14900000, "polity": { "id": 569, "name": "mx_mexico_1", "start_year": 1810, "end_year": 1920, "long_name": "Early United Mexican States", "new_name": "mx_mexico_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>'''General'''<br>This tumultuous and violent period marked by revolution and war begins following the downfall of the rule of ‘New Spain’ and the Spanish monarchy, and the Mexican Wars of Independence. “In April 1808, as French forces marched into Madrid, a sequel at Aranjuez seemed to succeed. By May, Napoleon held both Spanish Bourbons captive in Bayonne. The fall of the Spanish monarchy to its invasive ally set the stage for Mexico City’s summer of politics. Spain’s empire and New Spain would never be the same.”§REF§(Tutino 2018: 150) Tutino, John. 2018. Mexico City, 1808: Power Sovereignty, and Silver in an Age of War and Revolution. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5SZU2AP§REF§ “Then escalating conflicts exploded in insurgencies in September of 1810. Authorities set in power by armed force faced a people in arms. Unprecedented violence drove political conflicts begun by provincial elites while tens of thousands took arms to claim the necessities of survival in the core regions of silver capitalism. The regime of mediation disabled by the coup of 1808 dissolved in political and social violence beginning in 1810. Silver capitalism broke quickly. As conflicts continued, Spain’s empire fell as New Spain became Mexico in 1821.”§REF§(Tutino 2018: 230) Tutino, John. 2018. Mexico City, 1808: Power Sovereignty, and Silver in an Age of War and Revolution. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5SZU2AP§REF§ “Mexico was born in political and social violence, every faction proclaiming a vision of popular sovereignty backed by armed power. In that conflictive process, the silver economy and regime of mediation that for centuries had made New Spain wealthy, stable, and central to global capitalism were destroyed. The Mexican nation that emerged would be plagued by violence and instability unknown in New Spain before the crises and transformations of 1808–1810.”§REF§(Tutino 2018: 248) Tutino, John. 2018. Mexico City, 1808: Power Sovereignty, and Silver in an Age of War and Revolution. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5SZU2AP§REF§ “The new nation that came out of the conflicts of 1808 to 1821, briefly a Mexican monarchy, then a republic from 1824, searched simultaneously for a new polity and a new economy.”§REF§(Tutino 2018: 252) Tutino, John. 2018. Mexico City, 1808: Power Sovereignty, and Silver in an Age of War and Revolution. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5SZU2AP§REF§ <br>This polity is bookend by the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920)<br>'''Politics'''<br>“Political instability continued for decades after independence. From 1821 to 1867, Mexico had 56 administrations (Ponzio, 2005), and in the 55 years between independence and the Porfi riato, the presidency changed hands 75 times as a result of the continuous struggle between the conservative and liberal factions (Haber, 1989). In contrast, the United States had 13 administrations in the 52 years between 1817 and 1869 (Ponzio, 2005). Between 1824 and 1867, the average term of a president in Mexico was 15 months, 7 months for both the ministers of war and justice, and less than 5 months for the ministers of finance and foreign relations (Ponzio, 2005). The generalized episodes of civil unrest and violence reduced the population, disrupted mining and agricultural production, and severely curtailed trade and communications, thus further fragmenting the linkages among different regions. In addition, the struggle for independence brought about a temporary dismantling of the monetary union. A particularly disastrous consequence of the prolonged civil strife was the loss to the United States of half of Mexico’s national territory in the mid-19th century.”§REF§(Moreno-Brid and Ros 2009: 31-32) Moreno-Brid, Juan Carlos and Ros, Jaime. 2009. Development and Growth in the Mexican Economy: A Historical Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PZXKGTTV§REF§<br>“Porfirio Díaz’s [r. 1884-1910] first re-election to the presidency in 1884 marked a significant watershed in the political evolution of the regime. As a foretaste of what was to come, Díaz was unopposed in the election. Thereafter, a dual process of consolidation and transformation took place in the regime. While many of the mechanisms and tactics of political pragmatism continued to be employed in the attempt to mediate and manage factional divisions, the personal and patriarchal authority of the president at the apex of the hierarchy of power became gradually consolidated, and increasingly uncontested… Although the regime became increasingly centralized and authoritarian, nevertheless important constraints existed on presidential authority. In other words, Díaz never enjoyed the absolute political control that his critics have argued, because the process of centralization and consolidation was always contested, challenged and resisted at a variety of levels. Political factionalism, dissidence, and rebellion remained constant during the era.”§REF§(Garner 2011: 297-298) Garner, Paul. 2011. “The Civilian and the General, 1867–1911,” in A Companion to Mexican History and Culture, ed. William H. Beezley. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. 288–301. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EMSG558V§REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 694, "year_from": 1790, "year_to": 1790, "description": " People.The 1870 statistical atlas of the US listed the area and population of the states and territories every ten years from 1790.§REF§ Walker 1874: 7. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DUWG4XAX.§REF§ ", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": false, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 3929214, "polity_population_to": 3929214, "polity": { "id": 563, "name": "us_antebellum", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1865, "long_name": "Antebellum US", "new_name": "us_antebellum", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "<br>This polity period spans from American Independence in 1776 following the American Revolution, until 1865 with the end of the American Civil War.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 22, "name": "East Coast", "subregions_list": "East Coast of US", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 739, "year_from": 1897, "year_to": 1913, "description": "", "note": null, "finalized": false, "created_date": "2023-12-02T15:49:41.619178Z", "modified_date": "2023-12-02T15:50:13.782534Z", "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": false, "name": "Polity_population", "polity_population_from": 125640021, "polity_population_to": 170100000, "polity": { "id": 571, "name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1917, "long_name": "Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II", "new_name": "ru_romanov_dyn_2", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": null, "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2024-05-30T13:02:18.914134Z", "home_nga": null, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 16, "name": "Eastern Europe", "subregions_list": "Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia", "mac_region": { "id": 5, "name": "Europe" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 51, "text": "a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }