Polity Population List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Populations.
GET /api/sc/polity-populations/?format=api&ordering=-year_to
{ "count": 467, "next": "https://seshatdata.com/api/sc/polity-populations/?format=api&ordering=-year_to&page=2", "previous": null, "results": [ { "id": 584, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " in squared kilometers. \"There are no serious works on the estimates for the area and population in the Neolithic and Bronze Age Yemen\".§REF§(A. Sedov: pers. comm. to E. Cioni: September 2019)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": null, "polity_population_to": null, "polity": { "id": 536, "name": "YeNeoL*", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -1201, "long_name": "Neolithic Yemen", "new_name": "ye_yemen_lnl", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Yemeni Coastal Plain or Plateau is the northwestern region of modern Yemen that lies between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Neolithic (c. 3500-1201 BCE). Settlements at this time were small clusters of oval huts, with stone tools and stone manufacture debris but no pottery remains. §REF§ (De Maigret 2002: 120-124) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/X3MRZCH5\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/X3MRZCH5</a>. §REF§ <br>No speculation could be found in the literature regarding possible forms of political organisation prevalent at the time; from an archaeological perspective, not enough is known about the few buildings that have been excavated to interpret them as having been used for administrative purposes, and the earliest known state-managed food storage structures in the region date to the third century BCE. Similarly, there are no serious works on the estimates for the area and population in the Neolithic and Bronze Age Yemen. §REF§ (A. Sedov: pers. comm. to E. Cioni: September 2019) §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 12, "name": "Yemeni Coastal Plain", "subregion": "Arabia", "longitude": "43.315739000000", "latitude": "14.850891000000", "capital_city": "Sanaa", "nga_code": "YE", "fao_country": "Yemen", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 44, "name": "Arabia", "subregions_list": "Arabian Peninsula", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 395, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " People.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": null, "polity_population_to": null, "polity": { "id": 472, "name": "IqSoNeo", "start_year": -9000, "end_year": -5501, "long_name": "Southern Mesopotamia Neolithic", "new_name": "iq_so_mesopotamia_nl", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 8, "name": "Southern Mesopotamia", "subregion": "Levant-Mesopotamia", "longitude": "44.420000000000", "latitude": "32.470000000000", "capital_city": "Babylon (Hillah)", "nga_code": "IQ", "fao_country": "Iraq", "world_region": "Southwest Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 62, "name": "Mesopotamia", "subregions_list": "Iraq, Kuwait", "mac_region": { "id": 11, "name": "Southwest Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 311, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " People.<br>McEvedy and Jones have Egypt at just under 3 million in 400 BCE.§REF§(McEvedy and Jones 1978, 227) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd.§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 2500000, "polity_population_to": 3000000, "polity": { "id": 205, "name": "EgIntOc", "start_year": -404, "end_year": -342, "long_name": "Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period", "new_name": "eg_inter_occupation", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Inter-Occupation Dynasties (Twenty-eighth, Twenty-ninth and Thirtieth Dynasties, 404‒343/2 BCE) §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 377) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Late Period (664-332 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 364-87. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ refers to the last period during which Egypt was governed by indigenous rulers, at a time when Egypt's external relationships with Greeks and Persians overshadowed attempts to maintain internal political stability. Forming part of the the 'Late Period' of Egyptian history, it spanned only about six decades in between phases of Persian domination. §REF§ (Lichtheim [1980] 2006, ix-x) Miriam Lichtheim. [1980] 2006. <i>Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume III: The Late Period</i>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ <br>The Twenty-eighth Dynasty was established after a number of revolts against Persian rule in 404 BCE, and Amyrtaeus II, who ruled from Memphis, may have adopted the regnal name of Psamtik (after the first Saite king) to lend his rule legitimacy. §REF§ (Perdu 2010, 152-53) Olivier Perdu. 2010. 'Saites and Persians (664‒332)', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Although Amyrtaeus succeeded in extending his control as far south as Aswan in 400 BCE, where his rule was accepted by the Jewish community at Elephantine, §REF§ (Grimal 1994, 371) N. Grimal. 1994. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ his reign was challenged and overthrown by one of his generals. An Aramaic papyrus at the Brooklyn museum describes a violent coup that unseated Amyrtaeus; according to the document, Nepherites I captured Amyrtaeus and executed him at Memphis. §REF§ (Grimal 1994, 372) N. Grimal. 1994. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ <br>Nepherites I is considered the founder of a new dynasty (the Twenty-ninth). His new capital was probably at Mendes, where he carried out building projects, as revealed by excavations in the 1980s by the Brooklyn Museum and the University of New York. §REF§ (Grimal 1994, 372) N. Grimal. 1994. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ Nectanebo I, founder of the Thirtieth and final native Egyptian pharaonic Dynasty, seems to have overthrown the last ruler of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty with the assistance of a Greek general called Chabrias, whose mercenaries are known to have subsequently helped prevent a Persian invasion of Egypt. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The most powerful elements in Egyptian society in this period were members of the the warrior class and priesthood. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 377) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Late Period (664-332 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 364-87. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The men who established the Twenty-ninth and Thirtieth Dynasties ‒ Nepherites I and Nectanebo I respectively ‒ were both generals, while Amyrtaeus II was most likely the grandson of another Amyrtaeus from Sais, who had rebelled against the Achaemenid occupation. §REF§ (Perdu 2010, 152) Olivier Perdu. 2010. 'Saites and Persians (664‒332)', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ One of the first priorities of Nectanebo II when he came to power was to control the Egyptian army; to achieve this end he promoted his oldest son to the position of 'First Generalissimo of His Majesty'. §REF§ (Perdu 2010, 156) Olivier Perdu. 2010. 'Saites and Persians (664‒332)', in <i>A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1</i>, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The 340s BCE were a time of insurrection, when Egyptians were fomenting rebellions against Persian authority across the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean. §REF§ (Ruzicka 2012) Stephen Ruzicka. 2012. <i>Trouble in the West: Egypt and the Persian Empire, 525-332 BCE</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ <br>There are few sources to tell us of the workings of the Egyptian administration of this time, but historians agree that when the Persian Achaemenids conquered territories - including Egypt - they were generally happy to leave indigenous governance structures intact and did not seek to make wholesale changes to them. Egypt was made a satrapy, and the main task of the satrap in Memphis was to keep up the regular shipment of tribute to Persia. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 16-17) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It therefore seems likely that the Inter-Occupation Dynasties retained the administrative structures of the preceding Saite Period: a centralized court government with a warrior pharaoh and a vizier who ran his civil administration. This was the last period in which regional rulers called nomarchs formed part of the provincial administration.<br>The Late Period of Egypt saw an elaboration of debt and credit structures, to the extent that merchants could issue loans to individuals. §REF§ (Allam 1990, 2) S. Allam. 1990. 'Women as Holders of Rights in Ancient Egypt (During the Late Period)'. <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i> 33 (1): 1-34. §REF§ Though Persian coins were used under the Achaemenids, an innovation of the post-Achaemenid period of rule was the state minting of silver coins, §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 25) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ perhaps from the reign of Teos onwards. Priests were required to pay a tax in silver in order to secure donations to their temples; temples were forced to drastically reduce their expenses and use the savings to make loans to the king, who used it to mint coins to pay his armies. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 25) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt.</i> New York: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Pharaoh Teos evidently had enough resources to launch an attack on the Persians in the late 360s BCE. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 24) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. <i>Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Egypt at this time was a diverse, cosmopolitan state. Foreign mercenary forces recruited to defend the Egyptian homeland, a practice popular since the Third Intermediate Period, brought great ethnic and cultural diversity. The presence of garrisoned Greeks, Carians, Phoenicians, Cypriots, Aramaeans and Jews had been an important influence on Egypt since the Saite Dynasty and these groups had retained the languages and culture of their home communities. §REF§ (Kaplan 2003) Philip Kaplan. 2003. 'Cross-Cultural Contacts among Mercenary Communities in Saite and Persian Egypt'. <i>Mediterranean Historical Review</i> 18 (1): 1-31. §REF§ <br>A significant innovation of the period was the widespread adoption of the <i>qanat</i> water supply technology, brought in by the occupying Persians in the 5th century BCE. §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2011, 307) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt.</i> Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Qanats were sloping subterranean tunnels that conducted groundwater over long distances, creating a reliable supply of water for drinking, bathing and irrigation. §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2011, 307) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt.</i> Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In about 400 BCE, the Egyptian population is likely to have risen to slightly over three million. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 227) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History.</i> London: Allen Lane. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 476, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " Inhabitants at peak. Sources mention population drop in the 1400s - so probably fewer people during this period. These sources refer to Classic Angkor and not the post-Classic period. 'At its peak, Angkor sprawled over nearly 1000 km2 [1] and may have housed more than three quarters of a million people [2,3].' §REF§(Penny et al 2014, p. e84252)§REF§ 'With a fluctuating but persistent political dominance that extended from the ninth to the fourteenth centuries, it is hardly surprising that Angkor could built a temple enclosure (Angkor Wat) the size of central Tikal (Figure 11.11) and create a low-density urban complex with a water management network that spread across nearly 1,000 km^2 of intermeshed urban-rural landscape. That landscape could have fed between 300,000 and 750,000 human beings (see Fletcher et al. 2003:117 for assessment by Lustig).'§REF§(Fletcher 2012, pp.300-302)§REF§ 'Angkor. It is now clear that the temple complex was the centre of an enormous dispersed city, home to up to one million inhabitants, making it the largest city of antiquity. '§REF§(Tully 2005, p. 33)§REF§ 'Although it is likely that Groslier’s original population estimate was too high, Angkor was probably the largest pre-industrial city in the world. The most recent archaeological work indicates that one million is a reasonable estimate of the city’s size.'§REF§(Tully 2005, p. 44)§REF§ 'Acker has given detailed consideration to the area that could have been irrigated, the water requirement, likely yields, and the location of the barays relative to one another and the land below them. His calculations were based on Groslier’s estimate of a population at Angkor in the vicinity of 1,900,000 people, of whom 600,000 were supported by 86,000 hectares (215,000 acres) of irrigated rice fields. In the dry season, a hectare would require 15,000 cubic meters (525,000 cu. ft.) of water. Assuming all the major barays at Angkor were full to a depth of three meters (9.9 ft.), they could have supplied 7,000 hectares (17,500 acres). If they yielded 1.46 tons of rice per hectare and annual consumption was 220 kilograms (484 lbs.) of rice per capita, the dry season yield would have maintained about 44,500 people, about 2.5 percent of the estimated population. This calculation is based only on the amount of water available when the barays were three meters deep. It does not take into account the possibility that the barays were constantly replenished with water from the Siem Reap River throughout the dry season. There is also the possibility that the reservoirs were used to supplement water supplies to the fields when there was insufficient rainfall during the wet sea- son. If so, then a further 9,000 metric tons (9,900 tons) over and above anticipated wet-season production could have been obtained, making the total irrigated yield 19,200 tons, sufficient to feed nearly 100,000 people.'§REF§(Higham 2004, p. 162)§REF§ 'At its peak, the population of the impe- rial core may have exceeded 1.5 million.'§REF§(Lieberman 2003, p. 219)§REF§ 'At its height, Angkor was the largest premodern settlement in the world, a city of more than 700,000 spread over a larger area than modern Los Angeles. Its crowning achievement was Angkor Wat, built at the kingdom’s height in the early twelfth century. Topped by five towers, arranged in an “X” pattern like the dots on a die, Angkor Wat was designed as a microcosmic representation of Mount Meru, the center of the universe in Hindu and Buddhist cosmology. This vast complex, still the largest religious building in the world, remains a powerful representation of Angkor’s military, artistic, and economic might, as well as the absolute rule of the God Kings, who were said to “eat their kingdom,” ruling with an iron fist.'§REF§(Strangio 2014, pp. 3-4)§REF§ The figure was probably smaller toward the 1400s when the Phnom Penh area became the centre of the kingdom of Cambodia. ", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 750000, "polity_population_to": 1000000, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "KhCambd", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594, "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "new_name": "kh_khmer_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "This polity covers the post-Angkor period of Cambodia's history from the early 15th to the end of the 16th century CE. In 1432, the magnificent city of Angkor was sacked by the forces of King Trailok ‒ of the increasingly powerful Thai Kingdom of Ayutthaya ‒ who carried off the Khmer royal regalia as a symbol of their victory. §REF§ (Stark 2006, 146, 164) Miriam T. Stark. 2006. 'From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia', in <i>After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies</i>, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 144-67. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Hall 2011, 233) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ A Khmer royal presence continued at Angkor in reduced form until around 1504, when the rulers retreated to a site near Phnom Penh on the Mekong River, southeast of Tonlé Sap Lake. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 402-59) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, Thai strength in the region continued to grow at the expense of the Khmer court, and in 1594 the then-capital Lovek was also attacked by the Thais, forcing the Cambodian king to flee to Laos. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 210) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ <br>Due to the Angkor kings' waning fortunes and endemic warfare with Ayutthaya, §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 421) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ it is difficult to identify the 'peak' of this polity. Indeed, the post-Angkor period is sometimes referred to somewhat dismissively as the 'Middle Period' of Cambodian history, §REF§ (Thompson 1997, 22) Ashley Thompson. 1997. 'Changing Perspectives: Cambodia after Angkor', in <i>Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory</i>, edited by Helen I. Jessop and Thierry Zephir, 22-32. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art. §REF§ but it should be noted that this term tends to also encompass the span of time between 1594 and the establishment of the French Protectorate in 1863. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 195) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Although centralized Khmer power was much weaker than in former centuries, and very few inscriptions survive to throw light on political organization, §REF§ (Thompson 1997, 22-23) Ashley Thompson. 1997. 'Changing Perspectives: Cambodia after Angkor', in <i>Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory</i>, edited by Helen I. Jessop and Thierry Zephir, 22-32. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art. §REF§ Khmer royals did still rise up periodically to assert their authority. For instance, historical accounts indicate that a king called Ang Chan reconquered Angkor in the 16th century and built a golden palace. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Meanwhile, the new capital on the lower Mekong was international in outlook, with quarters for Malay, Chinese and Japanese traders, §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. <i>Angkor and the Khmer Civilization</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ and some post-Classic Khmer kings had Japanese and Portuguese guards in their entourage. §REF§ (Jacq-Hergoualc'h and Smithies 2007, 98) M. Jacq-Hergoualc'h and M. Smithies. 2007. <i>The Armies of Angkor</i>. Bangkok: Orchid Press. §REF§ <br>More generally, this period was characterized by increasing commercial, religious and political connections within mainland Southeast Asia and greater integration into global trade networks, §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 411-12) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ especially after the arrival of the Portuguese in 1511. §REF§ (Hall 2011, 35-36) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. <i>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500</i>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ Wars between mainland Southeast Asian rulers did not preclude the development of a common, 'hybrid' culture among the wider population. §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 411-12) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Likewise, one reason for the relocation of the Khmer capital (in addition to Thai attacks and drought coupled with 'intense monsoons') §REF§ (Buckley et al. 2010, 6748) Brendan M. Buckley, Kevin J. Anchukaitisa, Daniel Penny, Roland Fletcher, Edward R. Cook, Masaki Sano, Le Canh Nam, Aroonrut Wichienkeeo, Ton That Minh and Truong Mai Hong. 2010. 'Climate as a Contributing Factor in the Demise of Angkor, Cambodia'. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> 107 (15): 6748-51. §REF§ was likely 'a desire for greater participation in seaborne trade'. §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 410) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in <i>The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800</i>, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 17, "name": "Cambodian Basin", "subregion": "Siam", "longitude": "103.866700000000", "latitude": "13.412500000000", "capital_city": "Angkor Wat", "nga_code": "KH", "fao_country": "Cambodia", "world_region": "Southeast Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 41, "name": "Mainland", "subregions_list": "Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam", "mac_region": { "id": 10, "name": "Southeast Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 312, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " People.<br>Egypt (5 m), Levant (0.5m) and Syria (1.5m) in 1300 CE. §REF§(McEvedy and Jones 1978)§REF§<br>Demographic decline from 1348 CE (plague). §REF§(Raymond 2000, 116)§REF§<br>Population of Egypt 4 million in 1348 CE. §REF§(Raymond 2000, 120)§REF§<br>Suggested estimates: 5-6 million in 1300 CE, 3.5 million in 1400 CE; 3.2 million in 1500 CE§REF§(Korotayev Andrey. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. May 2020.)§REF§<br>Famines in Egypt§REF§(Nicolle 2014) Nicolle, D. 2014 Mamluk Askar 1250-1517. Osprey Publishing Ltd.§REF§<br>1284 CE, 1295 CE, 1296 CE, 1335 CE", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 5000000, "polity_population_to": 6000000, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "EgMamBh", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348, "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "new_name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Mamluk Sultanate has two possible start dates: 1250 CE, when the last Ayyubid ruler in Egypt was deposed, or ten years later, once a period of disorder that included an attack from the Mongols had ended. Baybars (sultan from 1260 to 1277 CE) killed the first two Mamluk sultans after victories on the battlefield and, as a statesman and organizer, was 'the real founder of the Mamluk state'. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The sultans of the Bahri Dynasty or 'Dawlat al-Atrak' (Empire of the Turks) §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 41) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ - so-called because the rulers were of Turkish origin - oversaw a new climax of sociopolitical development, wealth and splendour in Egypt, which peaked under the reign of Sultan Nasiri §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 137) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ before plague arrived in Alexandria in 1347 CE. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ We end our early Mamluk Sultanate period in 1348 CE, a year when crisis struck Egypt.<br>The traditional chronological division of the Mamluk Sultanate into Bahri (Turkish) and Burji (Circassian) periods is not followed here because, according to the historian André Raymond, these periods 'correspond to no fundamental changes in the organization of the Mamluk state'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ We have chosen to split the sultanate in 1348 and 1412 CE instead in recognition of the crisis period following the Bahri period of prosperity. After the 'great plague epidemic' of 1348, Mamluk troops were defeated by the Turco-Mongol conqueror Tamerlane (Timur) at the end of the 14th century, and, in 1403, the sultanate faced another political crisis and the 'disastrous reign of Faraj'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The final Burji period began in 1412 CE and, while known for 'a return to normality and periods of brilliance', was marked by demographic decline. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>Since the children of mamluks could by law never become mamluks, §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 16) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ the Mamluk Sultanate was in every generation ruled by a foreign 'slave-elite' that had to be constantly replaced by new 'slave' recruits imported, educated, promoted, and manumitted specifically for the role. Manumission was essential because under Islamic law no slave could be sovereign. The sultan performed a ritual manumission at his inaugural ceremony but the legal manumission would usually have occurred when he was about 18 years old, following the mamluk training. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In the Bahri period the Mamluks were of Turkish origin (like those recruited by the last Ayyubid sultan), but later sultans recruited mostly Circassians from the Caucasus. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 112) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Mamluk recruits were employed in the central government, the military and as governors in the provinces. While promotion to the highest echelons of the government and military was 'granted according to precise rules', succession to the highest position - the Sultanate itself - was often a chaotic contest in which 'seniority, merit, cabal, intrigue, or violence' all jostled for prominence. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 113-14) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Nevertheless, the deck was stacked such that from 1290 to 1382 CE, the sultanate was inherited by 17 different descendants of Sultan Qalawun. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 114) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br>The Mamluk sultan ruled from Cairo and during his absence from the capital, Egypt was governed by his viceroy, the <i>na'ib al-saltana</i>. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 152) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The bureaucracy did not tightly control the countryside. Rather, influence was projected informally through<i> 'iqta</i> holdings (allotments of land along with the right to their tax revenue) - first used in Egypt during the preceding Ayyubid Dynasty period. These were assigned as a way to remunerate the slave soldiers of the centrally organized professional military, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 250) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ as well as more formally through the na'ib, governor of a <i>mamlaka</i> administrative district. §REF§ (Drory 2004, 169) Joseph Drory. 2004. 'Some Remarks Concerning Safed and the Organization of the Region in the Mamluk period', in <i>The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society</i>, edited by Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, 163-90. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The Mamluk elite controlled the appointment of 'judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders, and other Muslim officials. They paid the salaries of religious personnel, endowed their schools, and thus brought the religious establishment into a state bureaucracy'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 249) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In Cairo, Islamic law was kept by three traditional magistracies called <i>qadi</i> (pl. <i>qudah</i>), whose courts had a wide remit over civil law. A law-enforcement official called the chief of the sergeant of the watch oversaw <i>wulah</i> (sg. <i>wali</i>) policemen who kept watch at night and also fought fires. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 153) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ <br><i>Revenue and Resources</i><br>The Bahri Dynasty was highly effective at drawing revenue. In the 14th century CE, the annual revenue was 9.5 million dinars, which was 'higher than at almost any other time since the Arab conquest'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ This paid for the Al-Barid postal system initiated by Baybars (1260‒1277 CE), which was extremely expensive to set up. Horses were used for first time on routes such as Cairo to Qus in Upper Egypt; and Cairo to Alexandria, Damietta and Syria. §REF§ (Silverstein 2007, 173) A. J. Silverstein. 2007. <i>Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic World</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Syrian region of the Mamluk Sultanate was run by a chief governor, who had governors below him. §REF§ (Drory 2004, 169) Joseph Drory. 2004. 'Some Remarks Concerning Safed and the Organization of the Region in the Mamluk period', in <i>The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society</i>, edited by Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, 163-90. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Imperial communications via Palestine were reportedly so efficient that 'Baybars boasted that he could play polo in Cairo and Damascus in the same week, while an even more rapid carrier-pigeon post was maintained between the two cities'. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 17) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>The Mamluk rulers continued the tradition of dedicating much effort and resources to what might be termed public works projects, for which they largely used corvée labour. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 152) M. W. Dols. 1977. <i>The Black Death In The Middle East</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in <i>The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600</i>, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In addition to a permanent medical staff, lecture halls and laboratories, a hospital established by Sultan Qalaun (1279‒1290 CE) included a library stocked with books on medicine, theology and law. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 177) M. W. Dols. 1977. <i>The Black Death In The Middle East</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ The Mamluks followed Ayyubid precedents when they embarked on an 'intense period of construction' in the first century of their rule, with building projects initiated by governors, generals, generals, rich merchants and judges. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 248) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ André Raymond has identified 54 mosques and madrasas built in the 1293‒1340 CE period alone. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 120) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The Mamluks also built many 'tombs for venerated Muslim ancestors and for deceased rulers'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 249) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. <i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>Private wealth was extensive at this time and the Karimi merchant and banking families operated fleets and agencies from China to Africa. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 19) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. <i>Medieval Africa, 1250-1800</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Cairo's population was probably under 200,000 in the mid-14th century (only Constantinople could claim a great population in Western Eurasia), §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 136-37) André Raymond. 2000. <i>Cairo</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and the sultanate as a whole reached about 6-7 million people. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones, 1978, 138-47, 227) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ This would have fluctuated, however, as severe bouts of famine struck Egypt in 1284, 1295, 1296 and 1335 CE. §REF§ (Nicolle 2014, 11-12) David Nicolle. 2014. <i>Mamluk 'Askari 1250-1517</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 276, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " People. [225,000; 105,000], coded as a range 100,000-225,000. AD. This is a rough estimate that needs to be checked by an expert.<br>If there were at least two realms within the Zarafshan basin then the population estimate should be divided between them (200,000). Another source suggests a federation of five tribes - so the estimate could also be divided between five (80,000). These figures presumably refer to the migrant population: how many inhabitants were there already living in the locales (if the invasion was not accompanied by genocide)? <span style=\"color:purple\">(JR: Woodcock said that 'there is no evidence of any general or even local massacre of the ordinary Greek population [in Bactria] after the nomad victories'.§REF§(Woodcock 1966, 130 in Hill 2009, 319) John E. Hill. 2009. <i>Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the 'Western Regions' from the</i> Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing.§REF§)</span> Given the relatively small size of these polities, this latter estimate could be directly added to the total. The largest settlement size for Greco-Bactria 200 BCE currently is estimated about 25,000.<br>According to Chinese sources, the Yueh-chih had a total population of 400,000 including 100,000 warriors. §REF§(Burjakov 1991, 199)§REF§ This number would correspond to the federation of five tribes, not to each separate polity.<br>\"Thus, both the written sources and the numismatic data show that Transoxiana in the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C.lacked internal political unity. Even Sughd (the basin of the river Zarafshan) was divided between at least two realms, this corresponding more or less to the later partition of the Zarafshan valley into \"Bukharan Sughd\" and \"Samarkandian Sughd\"; accordingly we have imitations of tetradrachms of Euthydemus and imitations of drachms of Antiochus I, with a horse's head on the reverse side.\" §REF§(Zeimal 1983, 246)§REF§<br>", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 100000, "polity_population_to": 225000, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "AfTochr", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29, "long_name": "Tocharians", "new_name": "af_tocharian", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The period of Sogdian and Bactrian history between the disintegration of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom in the late 2nd century BCE and the rise of the Kushan Empire in the 1st century CE is poorly understood. The region was politically fragmented and the local settled populations were subjected to nomadic invasions, notably by a group of pastoralists and traders known to us by their Chinese name, Yuezhi. §REF§ (Benjamin 2006) Benjamin, Craig. 2006. \"The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia.\" In Ēran Ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta, and Gianroberto Scarcia, Electronic version. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Liu 2001, 264-65) Liu, Xinru. 2001. \"Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies.\" Journal of World History 12 (2): 261-92. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7</a>. §REF§ The Yuezhi are also sometimes referred to as 'Tochari' by scholars who believe they spoke a Tocharian language, part of an extinct Indo-European language group. §REF§ (Benjamin 2006) Benjamin, Craig. 2006. \"The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia.\" In Ēran Ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta, and Gianroberto Scarcia, Electronic version. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX</a>. §REF§ (Others argue that their original language was eastern Iranic or proto-Turkic.) §REF§ (Hill 2009, 312) Hill, John E. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the \"Western Regions\" from the Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK</a>. §REF§ <br>In the mid-1st millennium BCE and perhaps even earlier, the Yuezhi were living on the steppes to the north of China. §REF§ (Liu 2001, 264-65) Liu, Xinru. 2001. \"Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies.\" Journal of World History 12 (2): 261-92. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7</a>. §REF§ However, after coming into conflict with other nomadic groups, the Xiongnu and Wusun, they migrated towards Sogdiana. §REF§ (Benjamin 2006) Benjamin, Craig. 2006. \"The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia.\" In Ēran Ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta, and Gianroberto Scarcia, Electronic version. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX</a>. §REF§ By 129 BCE, when the Han Chinese diplomat Zhang Qian visited the Yuezhi court on the Oxus river, they were ruling over a region that included parts of the old Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom. §REF§ (Liu 2001, 264-65) Liu, Xinru. 2001. \"Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies.\" Journal of World History 12 (2): 261-92. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7</a>. §REF§ <br>In the early 1st century CE, the first Kushan king, Kujula Kadphises, seized power and began ruling over south-eastern Sogdiana, marking the end of our Yuezhi period. §REF§ (Hill 2009, 345) Hill, John E. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the \"Western Regions\" from the Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK</a>. §REF§ Kujula Kadphises was probably a member of one of five Yuezhi factions or subtribes, which he succeeded in unifying through military conquest, §REF§ (Hill 2009, 345) Hill, John E. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the \"Western Regions\" from the Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK</a>. §REF§ but even this is disputed.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>The Yuezhi in Bactria and Sogdiana seem to have been organized into a federation of five tribes that competed for political supremacy in the new territory. §REF§ (Liu 2001, 272) Liu, Xinru. 2001. \"Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies.\" Journal of World History 12 (2): 261-92. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7</a>. §REF§ There is no written or numismatic evidence of a centralized Yuezhi state with a single paramount ruler before the rise of Kujula Kadphises. §REF§ (Hill 2009, 345) Hill, John E. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the \"Western Regions\" from the Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK</a>. §REF§ Historian Craig Benjamin has characterized Yuezhi control over the sedentary population of northern Bactria and Sogdia as that of a militarily superior ruling dynasty of nomads, 'pastoralist conquerors' whose 'nominal sovereignty' was acknowledged by the locals because they feared violence if they refused to submit. §REF§ (Benjamin 2006) Benjamin, Craig. 2006. \"The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia.\" In Ēran Ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta, and Gianroberto Scarcia, Electronic version. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX</a>. §REF§ <br>Secure estimates for the combined population of the ruling Yuezhi and the settled population under their control in this period are lacking.", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 23, "name": "Sogdiana", "subregion": "Turkestan", "longitude": "66.938170000000", "latitude": "39.631284000000", "capital_city": "Samarkand", "nga_code": "UZ", "fao_country": "Uzbekistan", "world_region": "Central Eurasia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 8, "name": "Afghanistan", "subregions_list": "Afghanistan", "mac_region": { "id": 3, "name": "Central and Northern Eurasia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 321, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " 1.5 million. §REF§(Manning 2012, 74)§REF§<br>[1,000,000-1,500,000]: 2500 BCEFrom about 200,000 3500 BCE to over 1 million c3100 BCE. Old Kingdom population between 1.5 -2.0m §REF§(Stearns 2001, 29)§REF§<br>1 million, 3000 BCE. §REF§(McEvedy and Jones 1978, 226)§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 1000000, "polity_population_to": 1500000, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "EgOldK1", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350, "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "new_name": "eg_old_k_1", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Old Kingdom period of Egypt covers the Third to Sixth ruling Dynasties, a period stretching from about 2650 to 2150 BCE. Seshat divides this period into two groups, the 'Classic' Old Kingdom period, covering the First through Fifth Dynasties (roughly 2650-2350 BCE), and the 'Late' Old Kingdom, comprising the turbulent Sixth Dynasty (2350-2150 BCE). The Fifth Dynasty, with its complex and effective administrative systems, is considered to be the high point for the centralization of the Old Kingdom government.<br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>During the Old Kingdom of Egypt, a god-king based in Memphis extended his reach along the Nile river through a network of royal centres, military towers and agricultural domains. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 196) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ Few documents survive from the period; what evidence there is suggests that Egypt had become a centrally planned and administered state. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 95) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ During the Third Dynasty, high positions within the central administration were characteristically ‒ but not exclusively ‒ the preserve of the king's family. A notable exception was the chancellor and high priest Imhotep, the architect of Djoser's famous funerary complex which housed (among other buildings) the Step Pyramid. During the Fourth Dynasty, the number of officials from outside the king's family increased within the Egyptian administration, a trend which peaked in the Fifth Dynasty when the vizier became a powerful figure in his own right. The vizier oversaw the palace government's granaries and treasuries, within which there were specialized departments and hierarchies of scribes. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 46, 78) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ One of the best known literary works of the Old Kingdom, <i>The Maxims of Ptahhotep</i> ‒ an invaluable source on Egyptian officialdom ‒ was written by a vizier at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ According to Egyptologist Hratch Papazian, however, a true hierarchical bureaucracy emerged only in the Late Old Kingdom. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 67-68) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in <i>Ancient Egyptian Adminstration</i>, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ <br>Initially, control over the approximately 300,000 square kilometres of Egyptian territory outside of Memphis was exercised through royal centres called <i>hwt</i>, run by directly-appointed state officials. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ At first there were no formal provincial boundaries; the hwt, a royal possession, might extend over several villages, large amounts of royal agricultural land, labourers, fields and cattle. The governor and staff of the hwt were responsible for irrigation works. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in <i>Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</i>, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 80) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. <i>A History of Ancient Egypt</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. §REF§ §REF§ (Malek 2000, 94) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ One notable change that occurred between the Fifth to Sixth Dynasties was that control over the hwt gradually passed from the royal administration to a provincial nobility. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 108) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ <br>A religious network of temples, mortuary complexes and local cults spread over the landscape of Egypt between 2650 and 2350 BCE. Long viewed as an incarnation of an ancient sky and falcon god called Horus, from the Fourth Dynasty onward the Egyptian king also was considered the son of a sun god, Ra. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 71-72) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in <i>Ancient Egypt: A Social History</i>, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Ra grew in importance during the Old Kingdom and, around the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, had essentially become an Egyptian state god. Although a common religious-ideological system prevailed throughout Old Kingdom Egypt centred on the divine authority of the king and a pantheon of deities and spirits, in general religious beliefs at this time were 'locally diverse and socially stratified'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ independent mortuary priests served cults at tombs dedicated to the afterlives of important individuals and local variation in the focus of worship remained an integral part of Egyptian religion. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ On the burial chamber walls of King Unas, who reigned c. 2375-2345 BCE, we find the first Pyramid Texts, 'the earliest large religious composition known from ancient Egypt'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in <i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i>, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 5, "name": "Upper Egypt", "subregion": "Northeastern Africa", "longitude": "32.714706000000", "latitude": "25.725715000000", "capital_city": "Luxor", "nga_code": "EG", "fao_country": "Egypt", "world_region": "Africa" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 4, "name": "Northeast Africa", "subregions_list": "Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)", "mac_region": { "id": 2, "name": "Africa" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 455, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " People. Minimum is the population of a large village; maximum assuming that half of the polity population was in the central village.<br>105,500 §REF§(Habu 2004, 46-50)§REF§ estimate for entire region", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 400, "polity_population_to": 1000, "polity": { "id": 140, "name": "JpJomo3", "start_year": -5300, "end_year": -3500, "long_name": "Japan - Early Jomon", "new_name": "jp_jomon_3", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "\"Consistent warming and a rising sea level pushed the coastal population farther inland during the Early Jomon period, with the temperature peaking several degrees higher than today toward the end of this stage. Water flooded low valleys, and some Kanto sites are as much as fifty kilometers from the present shore. [...].<br>\"The shell mounds of this stage contain chiefly freshwater clams (<i>Yamato shijimi</i> or <i>Corbicula japonica</i>, and marine haigai or <i>Anada granosa</i>) and oysters (magaki or <i>Crossostrea gigas</i>). Animal bones - not numerous - are chiefly those of deer, boars, flying squirrels, and Siberian mountain lions. Investigations indicate that mainly older deer were hunted, that the fast-breeding wild boars were killed indiscriminately, and that mountain lions were dying out. In the more isolated areas of western Japan, animal life was reduced, leaving fewer resources for human survival. The higher temperature encouraged the growth of the evergreen oak forests (Quercus) that covered much of west Japan.<br>\"The warmer temperature was also conducive to the growth of warm-water <i>Anadara granosa</i> as far north as the Daigi shell mound near Matsushima Bay, although its habitat is now south of Tokyo. On the other hand, the coldwater mollusk (Pecten yesoensis), now thriving in northeast Honshu, could not stand the warmth and is therefore missing from the Early Jomon shell mounds of that area.<br>\"Around the middle of the Early Jomon, reliable food sources and somewhat longer stays near the coast produced a dramatic increase in population. According to Koyama's calculations, the Early Jomon population numbered around 106,000, or five times that of the Earliest Jomon, an increase unmatched at any other stage of the Jomon period.<br>\"Small Early Jomon villages, developed on bluffs, had pit houses grouped in the form of a horseshoe. The presence of pottery of several successive types at a single site indicates continuous habitation. As this occurred, family demands fostered advances in house construction. The older, poorer shelters or huts were now transformed by the introduction of substantial inner posts strong enough to hold a roof over a rectanguloid floor. Rainwater shed by the pitched roof was drained off through surrounding ditches. Kaya (a miscanthus) was probably the roofing grass, fifteen centimeters of which would have been enough to keep the interior dry. Toward the end of the Early Jomon, the inner space took the form of a square with rounded corners. Some fireplaces were moved inside, though rarely were placed in the middle of the floor. Indoor living now offered more attractions.<br>\"Houses were occasionally extended to accommodate growing families, but archaeological evidence reveals few repairs and almost no overlapped houses so often found at Middle Jomon sites. The forty-eight houses of the Minabori shell mound, located on a rather level plateau in Yokohama and distributed to form a rough arc, had doors facing an open space to the north. Because successive rebuilding did not alter this fundamental plan, it is thought that use of the common area had become well established. An improving economy is suggested by storage pits found both inside and outside houses. Such pits were lined by alternating layers of leaves and nuts in order to keep most of the pit's contents dry, allowing cupboard raids to expose only a little at a time.<br>\"Most of the house pits of Minabori contained Kurohama-type pottery belonging to the middle years of the Early Jomon. These flat-bottomed pots were designed for cooking, and their new shapes made them more practical for indoor living on intensely used floors that were tamped hard. A short-lived spell of tempering the clay with small fibers - a practice that perhaps started in the Tohoku and moved south - may have been connected with attempts to strengthen the walls of the pots when increasing their size and experimenting with flat bottoms. Heavy cord marking is typical, and before the Early Jomon phase was over, Moroiso-type pottery appeared, bearing imprinted and incised decorative arcs and parallel lines made with the end of a small split bamboo stick.<br>\"Recent excavations at the Torihama shell mound in Mikata-cho of Fukui Prefecture point up hitherto unknown advances in the Early Jomon. One of the rather few kitchen middens found on the west side of Japan, it lies beside the Hasu River in a laurel (laurilignosa) forest area dominated by oak. These excavations show that boars, deer, monkeys, raccoon-dogs, bear, serows, otters, martens, and badgers were hunted; several kinds of fish were caught; and a variety of freshwater shellfish, saltwater mollusks, clams, oysters, and ark shells were collected. Walnuts, hazelnuts, and acorns were also gathered. But of special interest are the bottle gourds {Lagenaria siceraria) and \"green beans\" (Phaseolus sp.) that were pea shaped and found in long narrow pods averaging eleven centimeters in length and thirteen beans to a pod. Many Japanese archaeologists regard both as cultivated plants, indeed suggesting that pollen changes indicate environmental alterations caused by clearing and that trees of foothill forests were cut and used for building materials, wooden tools, and firewood.<br>\"Preserved remarkably well are ropes, reed baskets, and many wooden objects, including oars, boards, adzes, bows, and carved bowls and a comb which are the oldest pieces of lacquer ever found in Japan. Other innovations were polished stone axes, bone needles, and thimblelike bone rings. Vertically angled blades were changed to adze-shaped tools by the use of right-angled tree forks, probably for better hacking and digging of new forms of vegetation.<br>\"Torihama is no longer an isolated case. Gourd seeds have also been found in the Early and Latest Jomon sites of Gifu and Saitama. The Middle Jomon Idojiri \"bread,\" which has long defied analysis, is now thought to have contained some eight skins of beans. The Middle Jomon Tsurune settlement site in Takayama City, Gifu Prefecture, yielded two carbonized beans (Leguminosae) that are reportedly similar to a cultivated continental Asian bean for which there was nothing comparable in Japan.\" §REF§ (Kidder, Jr. 2008, 62-65) §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 21, "name": "Kansai", "subregion": "Northeast Asia", "longitude": "135.762200000000", "latitude": "35.025280000000", "capital_city": "Kyoto", "nga_code": "JP", "fao_country": "Japan", "world_region": "East Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 14, "name": "Northeast Asia", "subregions_list": "Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East", "mac_region": { "id": 4, "name": "East Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 512, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " People. Population estimates for the three chiefdoms in the valley at this time range from 1000-2000 people, with the largest population concentrated in the northern arm with San José Mogote as the primary center.§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2003). \"Militarism, resistance, and early state development in Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Social Evolution & History 2: 25-70, p33§REF§§REF§Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p125-6§REF§ \"The population of the Valley of Oaxaca did not grow appreciably throughout the Middle Formative period (ca. 850-500 BC).\"§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2017, 27) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2017. Settlement Patterns in the Albarradas Area of Highland Oaxaca, Mexico: Frontiers, Boundaries, and Interaction. Fieldiana Anthropology, 46(1):1-162. Publication 1572. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-46.1.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-46.1.1</a>§REF§ \"Table 11.3. Population in the largest centers, by phase, in Oaxaca and Ejutla.\"§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 183) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§ Valley of Oaxaca population (Largest center in Oaxaca): Tierras Largas: 327 (128); San Jose: 1942 (1384); Guadalupe: 1788 (774); Rosario: 1835 (564); Early I: 14652 (5250); Late I: 51339 (17242); Monte Alban II: 41927 (14492); Monte Alban IIIA: 120121 (16507); Monte Alban IIIB: 78930 (24189); Monte Alban IV: 77612 (16117); Monte Alban V: 166467 (13831).§REF§(Feinman and Nicholas 2013, 183) Gary M Feinman. Linda M Nicholas. 2013. Settlement Patterns of the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico: A Diachronic Macroscale Perspective. Fieldiana Anthropology, 43(1):1-330. 2013. Field Museum of Natural History. URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3158/0071-4739-43.00.1</a>§REF§", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 1000, "polity_population_to": 2000, "polity": { "id": 524, "name": "MxRosar", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -500, "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario", "new_name": "mx_rosario", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "During the Rosario phase (700-500 BCE), the settlement of San José Mogote continued to be the largest settlement in the Valley of Oaxaca. However, other settlements rose to challenge its primacy: Huitzo (at the extreme northern end of the Etla arm), Tilcajete (in the Valle Grande), and Yegüih (in the Tlacolula arm), each the centre of a cluster of smaller settlements. §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1999, 42) Richard E. Blanton, Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski and Linda M. Nicholas. 1999. <i>Ancient Oaxaca</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ There is evidence for increased inter-settlement conflict and social differentiation within communities. §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1999, 42) Richard E. Blanton, Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski and Linda M. Nicholas. 1999. <i>Ancient Oaxaca</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Burnt remains of buildings have been found at Rosario phase sites, which, along with evidence for fortifications and the extensive unoccupied 'buffer zone' of 80 square kilometres between the polities, suggest inter-settlement raids and hostility at this time. §REF§ (Spencer and Redmond 2003, 32) Charles S. Spencer and Elsa M. Redmond. 2003. 'Militarism, Resistance, and Early State Development in Oaxaca, Mexico'. <i>Social Evolution & History</i> 2 (1): 25-70. §REF§ <br><i>Population and political organization</i><br>While there is evidence of an emerging elite during this period, the nature of leadership and political organization remains unclear. §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1999, 46) Richard E. Blanton, Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski and Linda M. Nicholas. 1999. <i>Ancient Oaxaca</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Labour was organized for the construction of large public structures and elaborate tombs. However, the types of buildings constructed led archaeologists Kent Flannery and Joyce Marcus to suggest that elites could not yet draw on labour and resources solely for their own personal gain. §REF§ (Kowalewski, Fisch and Flannery 1983, 50-53) Stephen Kowalewski, Eva Fisch and Kent V. Flannery. 1983. 'San José and Guadalupe Settlement Patterns in the Valley of Oaxaca', in <i>The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations</i>, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, 50-53. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Flannery and Marcus 1983, 53-55) Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus. 1983. 'The Growth of Site Hierarchies in the Valley of Oaxaca: Part I', in <i>The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations</i>, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, 53-64. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ The first evidence of monumental art, calendars, writing and human sacrifice in the Valley of Oaxaca dates to this period. §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 123) Arthur A. Joyce. 2009. <i>Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico</i>. Malden, MA: Wiley‐Blackwell. §REF§ Population estimates for the three polities in the valley at this time range from 1000 to 2000 people; the largest population was concentrated in the northern arm, with San José Mogote as the primary centre. §REF§ (Spencer and Redmond 2003, 32-33) Charles S. Spencer and Elsa M. Redmond. 2003. 'Militarism, Resistance, and Early State Development in Oaxaca, Mexico'. <i>Social Evolution & History</i> 2 (1): 25-70. §REF§ §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 125-26) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. <i>Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley</i>. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ ", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": null, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "home_nga": { "id": 26, "name": "Valley of Oaxaca", "subregion": "Mexico", "longitude": "-96.761022000000", "latitude": "17.041135000000", "capital_city": "Monte Alban", "nga_code": "OAX", "fao_country": "Mexico", "world_region": "North America" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 23, "name": "Mexico", "subregions_list": "Mexico", "mac_region": { "id": 7, "name": "North America" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] }, { "id": 528, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "description": " people. Taxila. Estimate for 200 BCE.§REF§(Chase-Dunn: pers. comm. 2011)§REF§ Evidence of irrigation and the flourishing trade network seems to indicate a growth of population in the region controlled by the Indo-Greek Kingdom. However, this is largely speculative based on the current archaeological record.", "note": null, "finalized": true, "created_date": null, "modified_date": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "expert_reviewed": true, "drb_reviewed": null, "name": "polity_population", "polity_population_from": 60000, "polity_population_to": 60000, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "PkIndGr", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10, "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "new_name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "polity_tag": "LEGACY", "general_description": "The Indo-Greek 'kingdom' was created after the Greco-Bactrians invaded northern India from 180 BCE. It consisted of a number of dynastic polities that ruled from regional capitals and formed a single entity only to the extent their rulers were able to collaborate. More than 30 kings are known, who were often in conflict with each other. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. <i>Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road.</i> The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§ <br>Bopearachchi suggests the period was founded by two kings, Demetrius I and Agathocles, who ruled around 185 BCE, but Jakobsson (2009) believes that a later king known as Menander was \"instrumental in the creation of the era.\" §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009) Jakobsson, Jens. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. pp. 505-510. §REF§ The lack of consistent or reliable sources from either Western or Chinese sources means that much of what we know is speculative and reliant on numismatic evidence. §REF§ (Guillaume 1986, 1-16) Olivier Guillaume. 1986. \"An Analysis of the Modes of Reconstruction of the Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek History.\" Studies in History 2, no. 1 §REF§ <br>It is likely the rulers, who simultaneously produced their own coinage, ruled different parts of the Indo-Greek polity and employed their own administrators. §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009. 505-510) Jens Jakobsson. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. §REF§ Governance of the Indo-Greek region was for the most part through personal kingship and organization extended only to the limits of a particular king's power. §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009, 505-510) Jens Jakobsson, Jens. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. §REF§ <br>After 145 BCE, Successive nomadic invasions by Scythians and other nomads isolated the Indo-Greeks from the wider Hellenic world. By the beginning of the first century CE, the Greco-Bactrian state was extinguished as an independent entity. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. <i>Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road.</i> The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§ <br>Of the legacy of the civilization, the Greek alphabet survived until the Islamic conquest as the script of the Bactrian language, and the conversion of a Indo-Greek King to Buddhism became a part of the zeitgeist of the Indian collective historical memory. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. <i>Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road.</i> The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§", "shapefile_name": null, "private_comment": "", "created_date": null, "modified_date": "2023-11-20T10:59:20.104782Z", "home_nga": { "id": 13, "name": "Kachi Plain", "subregion": "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "longitude": "67.628836000000", "latitude": "29.377664000000", "capital_city": "Mehrgarh", "nga_code": "PK", "fao_country": "Pakistan", "world_region": "South Asia" }, "home_seshat_region": { "id": 38, "name": "Pakistan", "subregions_list": "Pakistan", "mac_region": { "id": 9, "name": "South Asia" } }, "private_comment_n": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" } }, "comment": null, "private_comment": { "id": 1, "text": "NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS" }, "citations": [], "curator": [] } ] }